波士頓老陳網誌 pkchanboston: The Old Quincy School in Boston Chinatown 波士頓唐人街舊昆士學校

Monday, June 16, 2008

The Old Quincy School in Boston Chinatown 波士頓唐人街舊昆士學校

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lesleyJune 26, 2008 at 11:52 PM
Chapter 4 Rivers

Revision Requirements

1 Understand that China's rivers are numerous, and the water volume and water energy resources are plentiful, thereby providing good conditions for the development of China's transportation, irrigation and hydropower undertakings.

2 Master the geographical distribution of China's main out-flowing rivers and their hydrological characteristics, and the distribution of the main continental rivers and their hydrological characteristics.

3 Understand canals - the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal, its main points and main uses.

4 Master the main points about the Yangtse River, its division into upper, middle and lower reaches and the special characteristics of each section of the river. Also understand the development of water conservancy works in the Yangtse River Valley after Liberation.

5 Master the general points about the Yellow River, its division into upper, middle and lower reaches and the special characteristics of each section of the river. Also understand the achievements after Liberation in bringing the Yellow River under permanent control and developing it.

Essential Content

1 The significance and general characteristics of China's rivers

China's rivers are numerous. There are more than 1,500 rivers with catchments of greater than 1,000 square kilometres. The water resources are plentiful. According to the statistics, the total runoff of China's rivers is about 6.8% of that of all the rivers in the world, and about 20% of Asia's total. It is third after Brazil and the USSR. China's hydropower resources are 680 Gigawatts , the energy reserves are extremely large. The number of rivers, and their plentiful water resources and huge energy potential, makes them beneficial for the development of irrigation, transportation, hydroelectricity, aquaculture, industry and mining undertakings.

2 The outflowing rivers and their hydrological characteristics

a The North-East Mountains
i Main rivers: The Heilong River and its tributaries the Songhua and Wusuli, and also the rivers on the China-Korea border, the Yalu and the Tumen.
ii Hydrological characteristics: The water volume is large, seasonal water level fluctuations are not very great, the flood season is quite long, the ice- bound period is long, and the sediment load is small.
b North of the Qinling mountains and the Huai River
i Main rivers: The Liao River, the Hai River and the Yellow River
ii Hydrological characteristics: The water volume is quite small, seasonal water level fluctuations are quite great, the flood season is short, there is an ice-bound period, and the sediment load is great.
c South of the Qinling mountains and the Huai River
i Main rivers: The Yangtse, the Min River and the Pearl River
ii Hydrological characteristics: The water volume is very great, seasonal water level fluctuations are small, the flood season is long, there is no ice-bound period, and the water energy is great.
d The Hengduan Mountains and nearby areas
i Main rivers: The Lancang River, the Nujiang, and the Yaluzangbu River.
ii Hydrological characteristics: The water volume is great, seasonal water level fluctuations are not large, the flood season is long, there is no ice-bound period, and the water energy is huge.

3 The continental rivers and their hydrological characteristics

a Hydrological characteristics
The water resources of the continental rivers rely mainly on snow and ice melt from the high mountains. The length of the rivers and their volume all turns on the volume of ice and snow melt from the mountains. Of the rivers which flow for most of the year, the summer is the season when the water is plentiful. The rest of the rivers are dry for most of the time and you can see the riverbeds. Apart from this, the continental rivers have large annual fluctuations in water level.

b The Tarim River
The Tarim River is China's longest continental river. The flows in the lower reaches of the watercourse often appear and disappear, and the water volumes in its tributaries are quite large in the summer.

4 The world's longest canal - the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal

The Jing-Hang Grand Canal runs from Beijing's Tongxian in the north to Hangzhou in Zhejiang in the south, and it is often called the Grand Canal. It cuts across five great water systems, passes through six provinces and municipalities, and is 1794 kilometres in length. Historically, the Grand Canal was of great importance as the link for north-south traffic and communication. Today, within Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces, it is still an important water transportation line.

5 The Yangtse

a The source

The source of the Yangtse is the Geladandongxue Peak in Qinghai Province, which is the highest peak in the Tanggula Mountain Range. It passes through ten provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions: Qinghai, Tibet, Sichuan, Yunnan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Anhui, Jiangsu and Shanghai, before emptying into the East China Sea. It is 6,300 kilometres long. The Yangtse has many tributaries and its river system is enormous. Its catchment is more than 1,800,000 square kilometres in area.

b The divisions into upper, middle and lower reaches and the characteristics of each section of the river.

i The upper reaches: From Geladandongxue Peak to Yichang in Hubei Province. In the upper reaches there are many gorges, a steep gradient, and swift currents. There are many tributaries and it is especially rich in energy resources.
ii The middle reaches: Between Yichang in Hubei Province and Hukou in Jiangxi Province. In the middle reaches the river is wide and flows slowly. The course of the river is winding, and silt deposits readily hinder river transport. There are many lakes in the middle reaches. The north and south tributaries and the lakes regulate the volume of water in the mainstream.
iii The lower reaches: From Hukou in Jiangxi Province to the mouth of the Yangtse. In the lower reaches the river is vast and the water is deep, there are few tributaries and many sandbanks.

c The flourishing development of water conservancy works on the Yangtse River

i Transportation: Ever since ancient times the main stream of the
Yangtse has been a great artery in China's east-west transportation. The arrangement of the mainstream and tributaries forms a vast horizontal and vertical water transportation network. After Liberation, the length of the mainstream and tributaries open to steamer navigation has doubled and redoubled. The total length of the navigable river channels on the Yangtse and its tributaries is more than 800,000 kilometres, more than half of China's total waterways.

ii Hydroelectricity: The Yangtse and its tributaries contain 260 GW of
hydropower resources. Since Liberation, many key hydropower projects and large and middle-sized hydropower stations have been built, Gongzui (on Sichuan's Dadu River), Danjiangkou (on the Hanshui in Hubei), Zhexi (on Hunan's Zishui). The key water management project, Gezhouba, is currently under construction. In addition, tens of thousands of small-scale hydropower stations have been built.

6 The Yellow River

a The source

The Yellow River has its source at the northern foot of Bayankala Mountain in Qinghai Province. The mainstream flows through nine provinces and autonomous regions: Qinghai, Sichuan, Gansu, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Henan, and Shandong, before emptying into Bohai. It is is 5,464 kilometres long and has a catchment of 750,000 square kilometres.

b The divisions into upper, middle and lower reaches and the characteristics of each section of the river.

i The upper reaches: From the northern foot of Bayankala Mountain to
Hekouzhen in Inner Mongolia. The upper reaches are also divided into three sections. The plateau section: the river is narrow, the water is shallow, the current is slow and the water is clear. The section at the junction of the two levels: the volume is large (the Tao River and Huangshui enter), there are many gorges, the water flows rapidly, there is plentiful water energy, and the water gradually becomes turbid. The plains section: the current is slow, the water volume is small and sediment load increases.

ii The middle reaches: Between Hekouzhen in Inner Mongolia and
Mengjin in Henan. In the middle reaches there are many gorges, the water flows rapidly, there are many tributaries (the Fen, the Wei, twenty or thirty rivers enter), and there is a lot of silt (mainly brought about by the instability of the loess, the reduction of vegetation and the frequency of rainstorms).

iii The lower reaches: From Mengjin to the river mouth. In the lower
reaches, the river is wide, the flow is slow and the silt deposits have formed a "river above the ground".

c Ice Run

Hydrologically speaking, the Yellow River has the phenomenon of ice dams blocking off the water flow, and this is called ice run. Ice run occurs almost every year. After the new China was established, the party and government led the people to start the battle to prevent ice run, and to use aeroplanes and artillery to blow up the ice dams and get rid of the ice floes in order to lower water levels. This basically ensured that the ice run menace was brought under control.

d Bringing the Yellow River under permanent control and developing it

Before Liberation, the Yellow River was a river of frequent waterlogging calamities. After Liberation, the government brought the Yellow River flood menace under permanent control, and developed Yellow River water conservancy schemes. Measures for permanent control: On the upper reaches, large-scale key water conservancy works have been built on the mainstream at Liujia Gorge, Yanguo Gorge, Dapan Gorge and Qingtong Gorge combining the requirements of flood prevention, irrigation and power generation. An even larger scale hydroelectric station is being built at Longyang Gorge. On the middle reaches, the launching of soil conservation work, the creation of forests and planting of grass, the greening of the earth, the construction of level terraces and the building of dams, all measures to resolve the key in the control of the Yellow River - the silt problem. On the lower reaches, repairing and strengthening the great dykes, planting trees for dyke protection, changing the pre-Liberation situation of "two breaches in every three years", and even creating ways to make the river deposit its silt on the land (called "warping"), thereby achieving comprehensive use of the water and silt resource and turning disaster into profit.

Revision Methods

1 Revising using maps and pictorial sketch maps

Firstly, when revising the names of China's rivers, find the distribution of the major rivers on a topographical map of China, the source region of each river, the provinces and regions it passes through and the sea and ocean it flows into. When you are revising, you should look at the map repeatedly several times, then after you are familiar with it, write it correctly on a fill-in-the-blanks map.

Secondly, using an annual rainfall map and an aridity/humidity status map, analyse the size of the water volume of the river. The rivers in regions with an annual rainfall of more than 800 mm and in humid regions all have plentiful water volumes. The rivers in regions with an annual rainfall of less than 200 mm and in arid regions all have very small water volumes.

Thirdly, using a topographical map, you can combine the particular topographical and climatic features to differentiate out the river's direction of flow, rate of flow and water system characteristics. You can also analyse out the sections of the river which are suitable for water transport or hydropower. China's topography is high in the west and low in the east, and most of the rivers flow to the east into the Pacific Ocean. The topography takes on the shape of three terraces. Where the terraces meet there are many gorges, the head of water is great, water flow is rapid, and the water power resources are plentiful. The large-scale water management projects already built or currently under construction, Liujia Gorge, Sanmen Gorge, Longyang Gorge and Gezhouba, are all found at the juncture of the terraces. In the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtse water transport is extremely easy.

Fourthly, by using a January air temperature map, you can analyse which rivers freeze over, and which do not. In the areas north of the Qin and the Huai, the average January air temperature is below 0°, and the rivers all freeze over. South of the Qin and the Huai, the average January temperature is above 0°, and the rivers do not freeze over.

2 Revision using the comparative method.

Firstly, compare the hydrological characteristics of the rivers in each region. For example, the differences in the hydrological characteristics of out-flowing rivers and continental rivers; the differences in the hydrological characteristics of the rivers south of the Qin and the Huai and those north of the Qin and the Huai.

Secondly, compare the hydrological characteristics of two rivers. For example, those of the Liao River and the Pearl River.

Thirdly, compare the separate sections between two rivers. For example, what differences are there between the hydrology and water systems of the middle reaches of the Yangtse and the Yellow River.

Fourthly, do a comparison of the hydrological characteristics of the upper and lower reaches of one river. For example, what differences are there between the upper and lower reaches of the Yangtse.

Fifthly, a comprehensive comparison. For example, compare and contrast the source, the hydrology and the water system characteristics of the Yangtse and the Yellow River.

3 Using the tabulation method to do a comprehensive comparison is quite an effective way of revising.

Region Main Rivers Water Volume Change in Seasonal Water Level Iced-over Period Sediment Load
North of Qin and Huai
South of Qin and Huai

Essay Questions and Exercises

1 On a fill-in-the-gaps map, write in the names of China's main rivers.
2 On a topographical map of China, find the boundary between the region of out-flowing rivers and the region of continental rivers.
3 What are the effects of China's monsoon climate on the hydrological characteristics of the out-flowing rivers?
4 The mainstream of the Min River is half the length of the Liao River and its catchment is less than one-third that of the Liao River, but its water volume is equivalent to five times that of the Liao River. What is the reason for this?
5 Using the monthly air temperature change sketch map for Shenyang, Beijing, Wuhan, and Guangzhou on page 50 of the Geography of China Textbook (First Part), and the monthly rainfall distribution sketch map for those same cities on page 55 as references, analyse the hydrological differences between the Yongding River which flows through Beijing and the Pearl River which flows through Guangzhou.
6 China's continental rivers are mainly distributed in which regions? What are the main characteristics of continental rivers?
7 What are the differences in hydrological characteristics between the Tarim River and the Pearl River? Why?
8 Explain the special features of the Yangtse River, and the main characteristics of the upper, middle and lower reaches.
9 What beneficial conditions does the Yangtse afford for the socialist construction of China? After Liberation, how were they developed and used?
10 Using the map, name the provinces and autonomous regions the Yellow River flows though, and explain the characteristics of the upper, middle and lower reaches.
11 Explain the causes of ice-run on the Yellow River, and the measures to prevent it.
12 Before Liberation, why did the Yellow River often overflow and spread unchecked? After Liberation, how were the special features of each section of the river directed towards bringing the flood menace under permanent control and developing water conservancy on the Yellow River? What major water utilisation projects have been constructed on the middle and upper reaches of the river?
13 Compare and contrast the points of similarity and difference between the Yellow River and the Yangtse River.

Translated from: Beijing Educational Institute Education Research Department, Beijing City Middle Schools Geography Revision Educational Reference Book, Beijing Publishing House, Beijing, 1984
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lesleyJune 27, 2008 at 4:45 AM
Chapter 5 The North-East Three Provinces

Revision Requirements

1 Master the features of the geographical location of the North-East three provinces.
2 Master the distribution of the predominantly plain and mountainous topography of the North-East three provinces as well as its characteristics.
3 Understand the climatic features of the North-East three provinces, their causal factors, and their effects on soils, vegetation, rivers and agricultural production.
4 Understand that the North-East three provinces is a important agricultural region and commodity grain base of China.
5 Understand that the North-East three provinces is an important industrial base of China, and its dense railroad network.
6 Master the North-East three provinces major industrial and mining sectors, and the distribution of cities.

Content Requirements

1 Geographical location
Latitudinal location: Located roughly between the 39º-54º parallels, it is the region of China found at the highest latitude.
Sea land location: The south borders the Bohai and the Yellow Sea. The Liaodong Peninsula in the south extends out between the Bohai and the Yellow Seas.
Mutual location: The north and the east border the Soviet Union, and the international border is very long. The south-east is separated from neighbouring Korea by the Yalu River and the Tumen River. The west and south-west meet the Inner Mongolia autonomous region and Hebei province.

2 Topography encircled by mountain ridges

a The Xing'an Mountains and the Changbai Mountains
The Xing'an Mountains of Heilongjiang province comprise two parts, the Xiaoxing'an Ridge and the Daxing'an Ridge. The northern part is the Xiaoxing'an Ridge and the northeastern end is the Daxing'an Ridge. The mountain forms of the Xiaoxing'an Ridge are low and gentle, and take on a north-west south-east orientation. To the northern side is the river boundary between China and the Soviet Union, the Heilong River. At the northwestern end, roughly around the area of the river valley of the Nenjiang river's upper reaches, it separates off from the Daxing'an Ridge. The northern section of the Daxing'an Ridge is in Heilongjiang province. The mountain forms have gentle western slopes and steep eastern slopes. Not only do they not help to block the winter monsoon at all, but they easily induce it, after passing across the low gentle slopes, to rush very quickly down the steep slopes, intensifying the bitter cold of the North-east's winter climate.

The Changbai Mountains are distributed across the east part of this region, running through the three provinces, Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning. It includes many parallel ranges, and the overall orientation is northeast-southwest. The mountain forms are generally quite low; the major peak, Baitoushan, at more than 2,000 metres above sea level, has a crater lake, Tianchi, at its summit, which is the source of the Songhua River. On the eastern side of the range are the boundary rivers between China and Korea, the Tumen and the Yalu. The mountain forms of the Qianshan Range in the south are quite low, forming a hilly topography.

b The North-East Plain
The North-East Plain is one of China's three great plains, and it is also China's largest plain. The vertical distance between north and south is more than 800 kilometres, and it extends across the four provinces and regions of Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning and Inner Mongolia. The North-East Plain is made up of three parts. The southern part is the Liaohe Plain. The northern part is the Songnen Plain. The eastern part is where the Heilong River, the Wusuli River and the Songhua River join, and is called the Sanjiang (Three Rivers) Plain. The Songnen Plain and the Liaohe Plain are quite often given the combined name of the Songliao Plain; between the two plains is a not completely defined watershed range between the Song and Liao. The soil layer on the plain is deep, and the area of cultivated land is extensive; furthermore there is a large area of fertile black earths . The North-East Plain has become one of China's most important agricultural bases.

3 The long winters warm summers climate

a Features
i Winters are long and bitterly cold: From October of each year until April of the following year, the temperature is below 0º. In the north of Heilongjiang Province, the January temperature is below -30º. In most districts frosts start in mid or late September and do not end until April or May of the following year. The rivers in this region start to freeze over from October or November, and the further north you go, the earlier the freeze starts and the longer its duration.
ii Summer are warm and very brief: Between July and August each year, temperatures can rise above 22º, the sunlight is ample, the sunshine hours are high, and despite the shortness of the growing season, most agricultural crops will ripen.
iii The rainfall is also concentrated in the summer; the annual rainfall gradually decreases from the southeast to the northwest, that is it gradually decreases from 800 millimetres to down to around 500 millimetres.

b Causal factors
The main reasons bringing about the North-East's long and bitterly cold winters and warm brief summers are the region's location at a relatively high latitude, quite close to the source of the winter monsoon. And added to this is the Daxing'an Ridge's gentle western and steep eastern slopes, strengthening the force of the winter monsoon.

c Effects
The features of a long winter and warm summer have quite a large effect on the other key natural elements and on agricultural production.
i Influence on the soils: The winter snowdrifts are thick, which is favourable for spring sowing; the bitter cold forms a layer of frozen soil, which is favourable for the preservation of soil moisture. In regions where the topography is low-lying, marshes form, due to poor drainage. The low-lying areas west of the Songliao Plain, where rainfall is low, very often develop into saline alkali pans.
ii Influence on the vegetation: Due to the low temperatures, trees grow slowly, timber quality is good, pest and disease damage is slight, and the forests have a lot of fur-bearing animals in them. The North-east is a renowned forest region of China; in some places, the forests stretch for several hundred li and are known as "forest seas". Due to climatic differences, from south to north in succession deciduous broadleaf forest, mixed conifer broadleaf forest, and coniferous forest appears. In the west of this region, due to the arid climate and large amount of windblown sand, sandy wastelands appear on the plain. In order to resolve the problem of the windblown sand harming crops, windbreak forests have been planted, and are already having beneficial results.
iii Influence on rivers: The rivers which originate in the mountains have plentiful volumes of water and are favourable for navigation; however, the long icebound period reduces the navigable period. Jingpo Lake on the Mudan River is a barrier lake, formed by magma flowing into the valley when a volcano erupted, and the Jingpo Lake hydroelectric station has been built here. Within the river valley of the Liao River in the south, because the annual variations in rainfall are great, the variations in water volume are great, and the sediment load is also great, and it is prone to flooding. Apart from this, because the rainfall is mainly concentrated in July and August, drainage of the floodwaters is difficult, and waterlogging frequently occurs.
iv Influence on agricultural production: Due to this region's warm summers, high sunshine hours, and coincidence of rain and heat, crops can be harvested once a year. In some years, because of the occurrence of early frosts or low summer temperatures, agricultural production is affected, and for this reason, it is appropriate to plant crops such as spring wheat, soyabeans, linseed, and sugarbeet.

4 The plentiful natural resources

a Forest resources
The North-East's Da and Xiao Xing'an Ridges have mainly coniferous forests, and the Changbai Mountains have mainly mainly mixed coniferous broadleaf forests, and deciduous broadleaf forests. This is China's number one large forest region, and it is also the most important timber supply base in the whole country. The marten furs, deer velvet, and ginseng produced here are the North-east forest region's "three treasures". There are also rare and precious animals: the North-east tiger, deer, and bears.

b Mineral resources
The mineral resources of the North-east three provinces are plentiful, and there are all sorts of different types; it holds a major position in the whole country. The most important of them are oil, coal and iron.
i Oil: The oil reserves of the Songliao Plain are extremely rich; this is where the Daqing Oilfield was discovered.
ii Coal, iron: Liaoning's Anshan and Benxi iron ore mines are famous throughout the whole country. An'gang is China's most important iron and steel industry base. Fuxin, Fushun, Jixi and Hegang are all China's famous large coal mines. Fushun also has a very large opencast coalmine, and at the same time as coal is extracted, oil shale is also recovered.

5 The major industrial sectors and their distribution

a Industry is advanced, forming a system.
In the North-east three provinces, heavy industry is advanced, and the sectors are quite complete. A fairly complete heavy industry system has been constructed with iron and steel, machine building, oil and coal as its centre; this is the most outstanding feature of the North-east's industry. In the last few years, sugar refining, textiles, and papermaking light industries have also developed rapidly.

b The distribution of industrial sectors.
i Coal industry: Fuxin, Fushun, Jixi, Hegang.
ii Iron and steel industry: Anshan (the largest integrated iron and steel complex in the whole country), Benxi, Dalian.
iii Oil industry: Daqing (the largest oil industry base in the whole country), Fuyu, and Liaohe oilfields.
iv Machine building industry: Shenyang and Fula'erji are heavy-duty machine building industry bases. Changchun is the largest automotive industry manufacturing centre in the whole country. Ha'erbin has electricity generation equipment manufacturing industry.
v Papermaking industry: Yichun, Jiamusi.
vi Chemicals industry: Jilin, Dalian.

6 The dense railroad network

a Features of the railroad network: "T"-shaped skeleton, made up of the Bin-Zhou - Bin-Sui and Ha-Da lines; it forms the heart for links with other lines.
b The Ha-Da line links to Dalian port, making up through-transport by land and sea. Apart from this, the Jing-Ha line and the Jing-Tong line connect to the nation-wide rail network.
c The two big hub stations: Ha'erbin and Shenyang.

Revision Methods

1 When you are revising, take care to discover the rules, to grasp the features, to raise your ability to analyse and solve problems, and to guard against blind mechanical memorising.
2 Become good at grasping regional characteristics and carrying out revision of the main points. For example, the North-east region's regional characteristics are, it is at high latitudes, close to the place of origin of the winter monsoon, therefore this gives rise to the bitterly cold long winter and warm brief summer climatic characteristics. This kind of climatic influence, causes a short growing season, there is only one crop taken a year, and the crops which are most widely grown are crops which like low temperatures. Taking another example, due to the North-east's plentiful resources, the industrial base is quite good, and therefore it has become the major industrial base for China.
3 When revising the North-east's minerals and industry, you need to make ample use of fill in the gaps maps; utilise the revision and filling in notes at the same time method to consolidate this section of the learning. When revising the distribution of railroads, you need to combine points and lines; in this way you will not only grasp the distribution of lines and their features, but also link them up with the industrial centres.
4 When revising the distribution of cities, you need to focus on analysing the location and communications of Ha'erbin, Changchun, Shenyang, and Dalian, but there is no need to go into each and every aspect of this.

For reflection and practice

1 What features does the climate of the North-east three provinces have? What favourable conditions does it have for the development of agricultural production? What are the unfavourable factors?
2 Why could the North-east three provinces become the major industrial base of China? What are its industrial features?
3 Draw a map of the North-east's major trunk railroads, and fill in the major industrial cities along the lines, as well as the four large coal mining and three large oil production regions.
4 Analyse the cross-section map of the Daxing'anling-Changbaishan on page 88 of Part One of the textbook "China's Geography", and explain the influence of topography on climate.
5 Analyse the table below, and explain the reasons for the changes in rainfall of the various regions.

Tonghua, Changchun region's average annual rainfall (millimetres)

Location Tonghua Changchun Tongyu A'ershan
(Inner Mongolia)
Topographical region Changbaishan North-east Plain Daxing'anling
Annual rainfall 894.4 610.8 425.2 460.5

6 Briefly answer the following questions:

a Which countries do the three provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin and Liaoning border on?
b The location and causal factors of Jingpo Lake, Tianchi, and Songhua Lake.
c In what ways is Ha'erbin important from the point of view of communications?
d¬ What is the purpose of the windbreak forest region in the western part of the North-east?

Translated from: Beijing Educational Institute Education Research Department, Beijing City Middle Schools Geography Revision Educational Reference Book, Beijing Publishing House, Beijing, 1984
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lesleyJune 27, 2008 at 4:46 AM
Chapter 6 The Yellow River Middle and Lower Reaches Five Provinces and Two Cities

Revision Requirements

1 Understand the geographical position and importance of the Yellow River middle and lower reaches, and the predominance of plateau and plain topography, and master the reasons for formation and the characteristics of the Loess Plateau and the Huabei Plain.
2 Master the region's climatic characteristics, and their effects on agricultural production. Understand the major measures and achievements in the people's management of drought, waterlogging and saline-alkalisation calamities and in the bringing of the Haihe river under permanent control.
3 Understand that the region is one of China's agriculturally and industrially developed regions, and master the distribution of the major crops such as winter wheat and cotton, and of the cotton spinning industry, and major coal mines and oil fields.
4 Master the distribution of the region's major main trunk railroads, communications hubs, and major ports. Understand the important position of Beijing City and Tianjin City in the whole country.

Content Requirements

1 Location and scope
a Location
The region is basically in the middle latitudes. The Shandong Peninula in the eastern part extends out between the Bohai sea and the Yellow Sea.
b Scope
The scope of the Yellow River middle and lower reaches is for the most part south of the Great Wall and north of the Huai River. It includes the five provinces of Shaanxi, Shanxi, He'nan, Shandong, and Hebei, and the two cities of Beijing and Tianjin.

2 The predominantly plateau and plain topography
a The plateau and mountainous topography west of the Taihang Mountains.
i The Loess Plateau: The Loess Plateau is the world's largest region of loess distribution. The reasons for its formation are that, long long ago the climate was extremely dry, and the strong prevailing north wind blew the weathered silt and dust of the Mongolian Plateau to the region north of the Qinling mountains; it was gradually formed by accumulation. Loess is made up of quite fine silt-textured particles; the soil is porous and strongly vertical. It contains nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium nutrients, and is quite fertile. However, because the vegetation here has been damaged and rainstorms are concentrated in the summer, the porous soil texture easily leads to soil erosion, so that many places on the Loess Plateau are criss-crossed with gullies. The main management techniques rely on soil conservation. The Fen and Wei Plains are fault subsidence regions, formed from alluvium from the Fen and Wei rivers (less than 500 metres above sea level).

ii The Qinling and Dabashan region: South of the Wei River Plain in Shaanxi Province are the Qinling (Huashan is at the eastern end of Qinling) and Dabashan mountain regions. Between Qinling and Dabashan is the Hanshui river valley region.

b The plain and hill topography east of the Taihang Mountains
i Topographical characteristics of the Huabei Plain: The relief is low and flat, and it is made up of three parts; alluvial fan, alluvial plain, and coastal plain.
ii Formation of the plain: The Huabei Plain was originally sunken dry land. Due to the continual dropping of the Earth's crust and the continual addition of river alluvium, silt accumulation produced a clear compensatory effect, and as time passed, an alluvial plain was formed.
iii Shandong Province's low mountains and hills: The hills are mainly distributed in the eastern part of the Shandong Peninsula. The low mountains are in the central and southern parts, the highest peak being the renowned Taishan. Between the low mountains and the hills is an eroded plain.

3 A typical temperate zone continental monsoon climate
With the exception of the south Shaanxi Hanshui valley region, which has a subtropical zone monsoon humid climate, the region is all classed as temperate zone continental monsoon climate.

a Climatic characteristics
i Cold winters and warm summers, relatively large variations in temperature (the average January temperature is roughly between 0º and -8º, the majority of districts are classed as warm temperate zone.
ii Winter and summer are long, spring and autumn are short; there are many clear days in the autumn.
iii There is little rain in the spring. The rainfall is concentrated in the summer and there are many rainstorms (the annual rainfall is less than 800 mm), there are large annual variations. Most districts are classed as semi-humid or semi-arid.

b Effects on agricultural production
i The summers have high temperatures, much rain, and an abundance of heat energy; they are favourable to crop growth. The crops are mostly harvested three times in two years, or twice a year, and it is a region that produces winter wheat, cotton, food grains other than wheat and rice , and many kinds of cash crops.
ii Drought, waterlogging, and alkalisation issues in the development of agriculture: In this region in the spring, the temperature rises quickly, evaporation is vigorous and rainfall is sparse, giving rise to spring drought. Rainstorms aggregate in the summer, and the plains are low-lying and prone to crop failure through waterlogging. In the plain regions the water table is high. In the dry season, the salts in the groundwater and the soil rise to the surface and accumulate in the soil, making the soil become saline. For a long time past, drought, waterlogging, and alkalisation have been the three major issues in the development of agriculture in this region.

In order to bring about high and stable yields in the region's agriculture, it is first necessary to vigorously develop many forms of water conservancy and irrigation. When utilising the many forms of water source for irrigation, care needs to be taken in the opening up and storage of the source. In particular, attention must be paid to the rational use of water and the prevention of waste. Secondly, river control and drainage are especially important; they are the key to the management of summer waterlogging. Thirdly, economical and rational utilisation of the irrigation water resource, to achieve both irrigation and drainage, are the only way to prevent soil saline-alkalisation.

4 Harnessing the Haihe river
a Characteristics of the Haihe (Sea River)
i A fan-shaped river system, only one outlet to the sea.
ii Upper reaches on the Loess Plateau, the gradient is steep, the current is swift; middle and lower reaches are low, sediment load is high, some sections of the river have become "above ground rivers".
iii In addition to the above two points, the reasons for the frequent overflows are the damage to a great quantity of the vegetation of the upper reaches, the aggregation of rainstorms, and the Haihe's falling into disrepair for many years.
b Control methods
i In the upper reaches, afforestation in the mountains, the carrying out of water and soil conservation, and the construction of more than 80 large and middle sized reservoirs (for example, the Guanting, Miyun, Gangnan, and Shisanling Reservoirs).
ii In the middle and lower reaches, the dredging of 30 odd river channels, and the construction of a 4,000 kilometre long flood-prevention dyke.
iii In the lower reaches, the opening up of 11 additional outlets to the sea, and a more than ten-fold increase in floodwater discharge capability.
iv On the plain region, the putting down of motor-pumped wells everywhere, to raise the ability to combat drought.

The aims of harnessing of the Haihe are the resolution of the four great calamities of flooding, waterlogging, drought, and alkalinisation, however, the management of flooding and waterlogging is the first priority.

5 Agriculture and industry
a Cereal crops
The middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River is one of China's important agricultural regions. Winter wheat is the widely-grown major cereal crop, and is mainly distributed on the Huabei Plain and the Fen and Wei Plains. Other cereal crops include maize, gaoliang, millet, sweet potatoes, and paddy rice.
b Cotton production and the cotton spinning industry
i Favourable conditions for cotton production: High temperatures and much rain in the summer and many fine days in the autumn, the siltiness of the loess suits the growing of cotton, and there is a long history of cotton-growing here.
ii The distribution of major cotton growing regions: the three provinces of Hebei, Shandong, and He'nan, and the Fen and Wei Plains.
iii The distribution of the cotton spinning industry: Apart from some cotton spinning which was originally in Tianjin and Qingdao, the newly built factories are mostly near the cotton producing regions. The textiles industries in the Beijing, Shijiazhuang, Handan, Zhengzhou, Luoyang, Xi'an, and Xianyang areas are all very advanced.
c Coal resources and the coal industry
This region has plentiful coal resources, and its reserves hold first place in the whole country. Amongst them, Shanxi Province, nicknamed the "Home of Coal", has one third of China's total coal reserves. The major large coal mines are Datong, Yangquan (Shanxi), Kailuan and Fengfeng (Hebei), Pingdingshan and Jiaozuo (He'nan) and Yanzhou and Zaozhuang (Shandong).
d Oil resources and major oilfields
i Geological conditions: The Huabei Plain and the seas of the Bohai are subsidence regions of the earth's crust - the Huabei Basin is a favourable place for oil formation.
ii Major oilfields: Huabei Oilfield, Shengli Oilfield, Nanyang Oilfield, Zhongyuan (Dongpu) Oilfield.

6 Rail communications
a The three horizontals and three verticals rail network
i Three verticals: Jing-Ha - Jin-Hu line, Jing-Guang line, Tong-Pu North - Tai-Jiao line.
Three horizontals: Jing-Bao - Jing-Qin(huangdao) line, Shi-Tai - Shi-De - Jin-Hu line, Long-Hai line
ii Major rail hubs
The cities of Beijing, Tianjin, Shijiazhuang, Zhengzhou, Ji'nan, Luoyang, Taiyuan, Jiaozuo, and Baoji are all rail communications centres.
iii Major coal transportation lines currently under construction
The Jing-Qin line, the Yan-Shi line (Yanzhou - Shijiusuo)
iv Ports connecting sea and land transportation
Tianjin, Qinhuangdao, Qingdao, Yantai, Shijiusuo

7 Major cities
a The capital, Beijing (refer to the teaching materials reflecting local conditions and suited to local needs - Beijing City Geography)
Beijing is the political and scientific and cultural centre for the whole country.
b Tianjin City
Tianjin is the comprehensive industrial base for the North China coastal region. It can produce high-grade, precision and advanced industrial products. Major industries are the petrochemicals industry, and chemical industries which use sea salt as a raw material. Tianjin's Xin'gang is China's largest man-made port.
c Xi'an, Luoyang and Kaifeng
Xi'an, Luoyang and Kaifeng are all famous ancient capitals of China, and now they are also all developing industrial cities.

Revision Methods

1 There is quite a lot of content for this region, but the internal linkages are quite tight and the main points stand out. You need to master two kinds of characteristics in the region's natural geography, namely the predominance of plateau and plain relief, and the typical temperate zone continental monsoon climate. Mastering this knowledge will lay the foundation for understanding the Haihe management measures and the influences on cotton and cereals production. When revising the relief characteristics, you can first find the Taihang Mountain Range on a relief map; it is the boundary line in the region's relief between plain and plateau. Then compare the height, formation factors and surface characteristics of the Loess Plateau and the Huabei Plain. When revising the climatic characteristics, first, by reading the maps, namely "China's Temperate Zone divisional map" and "China's annual rainfall distribution map", clarify that by far the most part of the region is classed as warm temperate zone, and most of it is semi-humid region, and the north-west part is semi-arid region. On this basis, by again associating the temperature and rainfall characteristics, the natural characteristics of the region can progressively be mastered.
2 When revising the climatic characteristics, you need to grasp the obvious contradiction of "rainfall". The shortness of the region's rainy season, the uneven seasonal allocation of the rainfall, and the large variations in the amount of rainfall between years, make the region very prone to the occurrence of spring drought, summer waterlogging and soil saline alkalisation calamities, and this affects the development of the region's industrial and agricultural production. At the same time, you can conduct a comparison with the climatic characteristics of the North-East region, and find the differences in heat quantity conditions and the moisture quantity conditions between the two regions. In this way, you will not only strengthen recall, but you can also deepen comprehension of the mutual interactions and restrictions between key geographical elements.
3 With regard to the distribution of rainfall, when you are revising you need to read the maps and diagrams in the textbook, for example regarding "Ji'nan and Taiyuan's rainfall monthly allocation map", and then link it together with the "Beijing rainfall monthly allocation sketch map" on page 55 of the textbook, and analyse them by comparing and contrasting them. Then you will not only understand that in most of the areas in the region the March to June rainfall tends to be low, but that in May and June the temperature rises very quickly and evaporation is vigorous, so that spring droughts form easily. And you can also make the connection that the actual conditions in May and June each year can deepen the effect even more.
4 When revising "Harnessing the Haihe", you first need to clarify from the topographical map the distribution of the three important large water systems of the region (Yellow River, Huai River, Haihe), and then proceed to analyse the distribution and special characteristics of the five large river systems of the Haihe, as well as the causes of the Haihe's frequently bursting its banks. For these causes, apart from the social factor of the pre-Liberation reactionary ruling classes' not improving management, you also have to stress the geographical knowledge studied previously as you analyse the natural causes of the flooding. For example, what common characteristics do the Yellow River and the Haihe have (in relief and climate), and then go on to analyse the Haihe's fan-shaped distribution, and the characteristics of large rainfall variations between years in its catchment. In this way, not only will you have revised the causal factors of the Yellow River flooding, but it will also make the Haihe's characteristics stand out, so lessening the risk of confusing them with the causes of Yellow River flooding, and prepare the conditions for talking about "Controlling the Huai".
5 There are quite a lot of main trunk railways in the region, and it holds quite an important position in the whole country's rail network. To facilitate recall, you can draw a skeleton sketch map of the region's rail network on a piece of paper, according to the region's three horizontals and three verticals main trunk characteristics. Understand the general location of each main trunk line, and then from this, master the cities at the junction of each line. The majority of these cities are rail hubs. On a familiar sketch map of the distribution of the rail network and the major ports, using symbols to mark in the major coal mines, oil fields, and cotton spinning industrial cities will consolidate recall even further.
For reflection and practise

1 Explain the Loess Plateau's causes of formation, characteristics and management measures.
2 Explain the Huabei Plain's causes of formation and characteristics.
3 Briefly explain the causes of the Haihe's susceptibility to flooding, as well as the measures and achievements in harnessing the Haihe since Liberation.
4 Try to analyse the causes of the widespread occurrence of spring drought, summer waterlogging and saline alkalisation phenomena in the Yellow River middle and lower reaches, and the major prevention measures.
5 From the "Ji'nan, Taiyuan, Beijing three regions rainfall monthly allocation map" and the "Beijing temperature arcs map" (Refer to the Textbook, Part 1 illustrations, on pages 106, and 55), try to explain the climatic conditions for the development of agricultural production in the five provinces and two cities in the Yellow River middle and lower reaches.
6 What favourable and unfavourable conditions are there for the construction of Tianjin City as a comprehensive industrial base?
7 Comparing the climate and agricultural production of the Huabei Plain and the Dongbei Plain, what differences are there?
8 Draw from memory a rail network sketch map with Beijing as the starting point, and draw in each line's end point. Then draw in the Tong-Pu, Shi-De, Shi-Tai, Jiao-Ji, Tai-Jiao, Long-Hai, and Jiao-Zhi railway lines .
9 On a fill in the blanks map of the Yellow River middle and lower reaches five provinces and two cities, mark in:
a The names of the five provinces and two cities, Luoyang, Xi'an, Datong, Yantai, Qingdao, Qinhuangdao, Yan'an, Baoji, and Kaifeng.
b The names of the major coal fields and oil fields.
c Use coloured pencils to draw in the general location of the Taihang Mountains, Taishan, and Huashan.
10 Analyse the major differences in climate between the regions north and south of Qinling in Shaanxi, as well as the reasons for the occurrence of those differences.

Translated from: Beijing Educational Institute Education Research Department, Beijing City Middle Schools Geography Revision Educational Reference Book, Beijing Publishing House, Beijing, 1984
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lesleyJune 27, 2008 at 4:47 AM
Chapter 7 The Yangtse Middle and Lower Reaches Six Provinces and One City

Revision Requirements

1 Understand the geographical location and scope of the Yangtse River middle and lower reaches six provinces and one city; and the topographical characteristics of predominantly plains, hills and low mountains, and the causes of their formation.

2 Master the main features of the region's semitropical monsoon humid climate; and the causes of formation of plum rains and dog days heat weather, and their effects on agricultural production.

3 Understand in overview the distribution of the region's main rivers, and master the hydrological features and overview of river control of the Huai River.

4 Understand that the Yangtse River middle and lower reaches region is an agriculturally and industrially developed region of China; master the region's major cereal crops, cash crops, freshwater fish and important minerals, as well as an overview of the distribution of the major industrial regions.

5 Understand this region's features of developed water and land communications, and that its internal river shipping holds a prominent position in the whole country, as well as the relationship between the development of cities and water and land communications. Master the distribution of the major rail trunk lines and the major cities.

6 Understand the characteristics of the location of Shanghai City, its important position in the industry and communications of the whole country, as well as the favourable conditions for Shanghai's becoming the largest comprehensive industrial base for the whole country.

Required Content

1 Geographical location
Latitudinal position: The Yangtse middle and lower reaches are located approximately between the 25° and 35° north parallels.
Sea and land position: Most of the region is between the Qinling mountains-Huai River and the Nanling mountains; the east faces the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea.

2 Plains and hills and low mountains predominate in the relief
i The scope of distribution of the plains of the Yangtse middle and lower reaches and their formation.
The middle reaches region of the Yangtse takes in the Jianghan Plain, the Lake Dongting Plain, and the Lake Poyang Plain; the western part of the lower reaches has the Lake Chao Plain and the long narrow plains along the river; and the eastern part is the Yangtse River Delta. Here the features are low flat terrain, numerous lakes, and a dense network of rivers. The two lake plains in the Yangtse middle reaches region were formed from two large lake basins which split apart and subsided, and accumulated silt from the Yangtse and its tributaries. In ancient times, the plains of the lower reaches were a large triangular bay. Most of the large quantity of silt brought by the Yangtse was deposited below the high tide mark on the north and south shores at the Yangtse River mouth, creating two sand embankments, and forming salt-marsh lakes or low-lying lands (or depressions). The area of the salt-marsh lakes gradually became smaller, the north part forming Lixiahe's low-lying land in Subei (north Jiangsu), and the south part forming the Lake Tai Plain. Today's Taihu lake is a vestigial salt-marsh lake.

ii The hills and low mountains of the Yangtse middle and lower reaches.
a The Dabie Mountain Range spreads across the borders of Hubei, Henan, and Anhui north of the Yangtse. It is the extension of Qinling eastwards, and it is also the watershed between the Yangtse and the Huai rivers.
b The Jiangnan Hills are spread out in the vast region south of the Yangtse, east of the Yunnan-Guizhou Highlands, west of the Wuyishan Mountains, and north of the Nanling mountains. They are mostly low mountains and hills running from north-east to south-west, alternating with long strip basins and river valleys. Here, magma activity is frequent, forming many kinds of nonferrous metal ores. The famous mountains, Jingguang Shan, Huang Shan, Lu Shan, and Heng Shang are all found here.

3 The Huai River and its control
i Causes of flooding
The Huai River arises in the Tongbaishan mountains, there are many tributaries, the drainage area is extensive, and most of the river valley is plains. Many times in history, the Yellow River to its north captured the Huai to empty itself into the sea. This caused the Huai river channel to silt up so that it could not flow directly into the sea, and the low-lying land accumulated water and turned into lakes. The drainage in the lower reaches was not free, and it was often breached turning into a calamity. In the past the Huai River Valley was a place of "Great rain, great calamity; small rain, small calamity; no rain, drought calamity."
ii Harnessing the Huai
In the mountain areas of the upper reaches, reservoirs were built to control the floodwaters (for example, the Meishan and Nanwan Reservoirs). In the middle reaches, the depressions and lakes were utilised in the construction of flood storage projects. In the lower reaches, new waterways emptying into the river and the sea (the Subei Irrigation Head-Race) were dug and extended to facilitate release of the floodwaters. At the same time, the Jiangdu key water control project and the Pi-Shi-Hang irrigation scheme were constructed.

4 The Qiantang River and the Qiantang Tide
i The Qiantang River
The Qiantang River arises in the mountain region in the southern part of Anhui Province, passes through Zhejiang Province and empties into the Hangzhou Gulf. Its total length is around 500 kilometres. More than one-third of the river valley by area is in Zhejiang Province, and the Xin'anjiang river is its major tributary. It flows through a region of low mountains and hills, rainfall within the river valley is plentiful, the water volume is large and the fall is also great; the hydropower resources are plentiful. The Xin'anjiang Hydropower Station is a major source of electricity in the Huadong electricity network.
ii The causes of the Qiantang Tide
The formation of the tide is mainly because the outside of the river mouth is a trumpet-shaped gulf; the inside is narrow and the outside is wide. There is friction between the water flow and the sea floor, forming the phenomenon of the rear waves pushing the front waves and the wave surging higher and higher. This gives rise to the roaring waves of the Qiantang Tide. The surging tide is destructive to the two shores of the Hangzhou Gulf, and from ancient times, sea dykes were constructed on both sides of the gulf, to prevent the tide coming up onto the banks. The Qiantang Tide could be used to generate electricity.

5 Subtropical monsoon humid climate
i Subtropical humid region
Most of the region, apart from the warm temperate zone north of the Huai River, is a subtropical zone humid region. Here the four seasons are clearly defined, the winter is short and the summer is long, spring and autumn are both two months, rainfall is plentiful, and the annual rainfall exceeds 1,000 mm. Plum rains and dog days heat are two outstanding features of the rainfall aspect.
ii Plum rains
At the end of spring and beginning of summer, South China's warm moist air and North China's cold air confront each other overhead in the Jiang-Huai area, forming plum rains. The plum rains generally continue for around one month. Their influence on early season rice water storage, and middle season rice transplanting is very great. The early or late arrival of the plum rains and the duration of their stay have a very great bearing on agricultural production.
iii Dog days heat
When the plum rains stop and the front advances to the Yellow River Valley, the region comes completely under the control of a single warm air current. The weather is sunny, giving rise to dog days heat. Then the temperatures are very high and the rainfall is insufficient, and it is necessary to irrigate. In July, because the coastal regions are influenced by typhoons, the drought can be alleviated.

6 Red earths and their amelioration
i Red earths
Red earths are mainly found in the low mountains and hills south of the Yangtse. They are soils which develop in high temperature high rainfall environments. The iron and aluminium components in the soil are relatively high, and after oxidation they generally become brownish-red or yellowish-red. Red earths are acidic soils, organic matter is low, the soil texture is sticky and heavy, and they are low productivity soils.
ii Amelioration of red earths
The main amelioration measures are the addition of organic fertilisers or hydrated lime. Implementation of integrated agricultural, silvicultural and livestock raising policies, terracing the slopes, and cultivating plants suited to growing in acidic soils such as tea trees, tea-oil trees, China fir, and masson pine.

7 Developed agriculture
i Favourable conditions
In the region the plains are extensive, there is a dense network of waterways, the climate is warm and humid, water and heat are ample, and the frost-free period is up to and exceeding 240 days. There is an age-old history of development, cultivation experience is rich, and it has consistently been a major agricultural region of China.
ii Major crops
This region's paddy rice is first in the whole country, both by area under cultivation and by quantity produced. Wheat, cotton, rapeseed, natural silk, tea, and tea-oil all hold an important position in the whole country.
iii Commodity grain bases
The Jianghan Plain, the Lake Dongting Plain, the Lake Poyang Plain, and the Yangtse River Delta are all major commodity grain bases.
iv Developed fisheries
In the plain regions there are numerous lakes, and the Yangtse middle and lower reaches are a major production region for freshwater fish in China. There are currently more than 500 relatively large lakes and reservoirs, all of which can be used for fish-raising. Jiangsu and Hubei are the most famous, their production quantities are the greatest, and they have been called "Home of Fish and Rice". East Zhejiang's Zhoushan Islands is China's largest marine fishing ground. The East China Sea is China's "Natural Fish Store".

8 Plentiful mineral resources
i Major non-ferrous metals mining base for the whole country
The mountain and hill regions of this region have had large-scale magma activity. Magmatic rock is distributed widely, forming many kinds of non-ferrous metal ores. For example, Dexing (Jiangxi), Daye (Hubei) and Tongling (Anhui)'s copper, Dayu (Jiangxi)'s tungsten, Lengshuijiang (Hunan)'s antimony are all mining regions with very large reserves. Of these, the tungsten and antimony mines are world-renowned.
ii Major iron ore resources
The region's major iron ore mines are Ma'anshan (Anhui), Daye (Hubei), and there is also the Lujiang (Anhui) magnetite mine. They are all major iron ore supply bases.
iii Major coal mines
The relatively large coalfields are mainly north of the Yangtse. There are the Huainan, Huaibei and Xuzhou coalfields. The coalfields south of the Yangtse are quite small. With the exception of the Pingxiang and Zixing coalfields, which are quite large, the great majority of the others are middle-sized and small coalfields.
iv Other minerals
Xiangfan's phosphate mine and Xiangtan's manganese mine hold an important position in the whole country.

9 Industry developing from the coast towards the interior
i Major industrial region for the whole country - the Yangtse River delta
Pre-Liberation in the region, apart from light industry which was quite developed, the other industries were all very weak. Post-Liberation, industry in every district developed rapidly, and light and heavy industry are both well-developed. The textiles, foodstuffs, iron and steel, instruments, shipbuilding, chemicals and electronics industries have quite a lot of sectors, production capability is strong, and it is a major industrial region for the whole country. The major industrial cities are Shanghai, Nanjing, Wuxi, Changzhou, Nantong, Suzhou, and Hangzhou. They are mostly distributed along the Nanjing-Shanghai railroad.
ii Construction of new interior industrial regions
Post-Liberation, industry in the interior of the region developed quickly, and industrial bases and industrial cities have already formed. Wuhan is a rising industrial base; the iron and steel, machine building and shipbuilding heavy industries are quite comprehensive, and the textiles and plastics light industries also have large production capacities. There is also the West Hubei (E'Xi) Xiangfan Industrial Zone and the Central Hunan (Xiangzhong) Industrial Zone, whose non-ferrous metal smelting holds an important position in the whole country.

10 Water and land communications and major cities
i Water and land communications
a The water transportation network is dense: The region is the region of greatest development of water transportation in the whole country. Freight volumes and shipping mileages hold first place in the whole country, and shipping by inland waterways predominates. The two east-west waterways, the Yangtse mainstream and tributaries (Xiangjiang, Hanshui, Ganjiang) and the Huai river system make up an enormous water transportation network.
b Rail transportation assists the water transportation network: Basically, the railroads running parallel to the Yangtse mainstream are the Long-Hai (Gansu-Lianyungang), Han-Dan (Wuhan-Danjiang), Hu-Hang (Shanghai-Hangzhou), Zhe-Gan (Zhejiang-Jiangxi), and Xiang-Qian (Hunan-Guizhou) lines. The railroads running perpendicular to the Yangtse mainstream are the Jin-Hu (Tianjin-Shanghai), Jing-Guang (Beijing-Guangzhou), Jiao-Zhi (Jiaozuo-Zhicheng), Zhi-Liu (Zhicheng-Liuzhou), and Wan-Gan (Anhui-Jiangxi) lines. In this way, it forms a transportation network where water and land complement each other, and which connects the north and south.
c Water and land communications hubs: Nanjing, Shanghai, Wuhan, Xiangfan, Xuzhou, Zhuzhou, Hengyang, Ningbo, Lianyungang, Hangzhou and Huaihua are all major hub stations.
ii The largest city in the country - Shanghai
a Geographical location: Shanghai is located in the area where the Yangtse enters the sea. It occupies the midpoint in the Chinese mainland's coastal north-south shipping. From the north and south respectively it links the Hu-Hang and the Jin-Hu railroads. Sea and land communications are both convenient. Its location is advantageous, its hinterland is extensive, and it has an important place in economic development and the development of communications and transportation.
b Changes in industrial development: Pre-Liberation, Shanghai was a major stronghold of the imperialist invasion and plundering of China, and the industrial sectors were incomplete. After Liberation, industry developed quickly, and the sectors were complete. Now, Shanghai's technical strength is solid, and it is not only able to produce high grade, precision, sophisticated products, but also to support the economic construction of all the various parts of the whole country. With the assistance of the whole country, the people of Shanghai have already built up this place into China's largest comprehensive industrial base.

Revision Methods
1 Because the natural conditions of the region are quite complex, and its industry and agricultural production occupy a major position in the whole country, it is a focal point in regional geography. When revising the topographical characteristics, on a topographical map of the region, you need to find the general scope of distribution of the plains of the Yangtse middle and lower reaches, and the hills and low mountains north and south of the Yangtse. You need to note in particular the feature of low mountains and hills alternating with long strip-shaped basins and river valleys in the two provinces of Hunan and Jiangxi.
2 With regard to the Huai River and its control, you need to note that although it has similarities with the Sea River and the Yellow River in the aspects of causes and control of flooding, there are also special features. You need to contrast and summarise the similarities and differences to facilitate recall.
3 Plum rains and dog days heat is an important characteristic of the region's climate. It has a very close bearing on crop growth. When revising, you need to match up the "Frontal rainfall sketch map" on page 63 of Part 1 of the text with the Plum Rains "Rain zones sketch map" on page 10 of Part 2 of the text and conduct an analysis. You also need to link the Spring Heat of the Yellow River middle and lower reaches region with this region's Dog-days Heat, to explain what differences there are in their timing and formation.
4 When reviewing the mineral resources and industrial regions or industrial cities, you can combine it with the Yangtse River middle and lower reaches six provinces and one city "Distribution of minerals production and hydropower stations map" on page 14 of Part 2 of the text, and remember it by types and provinces. Or you can fill in the blanks and revise at the same time on a fill in the blanks map of the region. As for cities or industrial regions, you should also consider their favourable and unfavourable conditions concerning raw materials sources, energy sources, communications conditions, and the agricultural production situation nearby, and from this explain the development of the industrial region. For example, there are many favourable conditions for Wuhan's becoming China's iron and steel industry base. Wuhan has nearby Daye's rich iron ore mine and limestone, and the Pingdingshan coalmine to the north and the Pingxiang coalmine to the south are both quite close. The Yangtse River and its tributaries and the Jing-Guang and Han-Dan railroads interweave to form a network. The city region borders the Yangtse and the Hanshui which is convenient for industrial water use. Nearby are the Jianghan and the Two Lakes plains; it is the famous "Home of Fish and Rice"… In this way the Wuhan region is provided with the most fundamental conditions for development of the iron and steel industry. In the same way, the industrial development conditions and major industrial sectors can be analysed for Shanghai City, the Xiangzhong Industrial Zone, and Xiangfan.
5 When revising the communications aspect of the learning, you need to stress water transport, especially that internal waterways shipping holds a prominent position in the whole country. You can link in to the text Part 2 page 18 "Map of the distribution of communications arteries and major cities", and clarify the region's major trunk railway lines, and that the Yangtse mainstream, Xiang River, Hanshui, Gan River and Huai River mainstream and tributaries as well as the Grand Canal, form a dense water transportation network. At the same time, there are also the main trunk lines north and south of the Yangtse, reflecting the region's feature of developed land and water communications. With regard to the Huainan railroad and the Ning-Wu (Nanjing-Wuhu) railroad, do not confuse them. It has the task of moving large quantities of coal south and is also a major transportation line for Ma'anshan's iron and steel industry. The newly built Wan-Gan railroad (Wuhu-Guixi in Jiangxi) links to Zhejiang and Jiangxi in the south, and joins up with the Ning-Wu and Huainan railroads in the north; these matters should also be mastered.

For Reflection and Practice

1 How are the plum rains and dog days heat of the Yangtse River middle and lower reaches region formed? What effect do they have on agricultural production?
2 Pre-Liberation, why were there often Huai River disasters? What are the dissimilarities in the causes of frequent flooding of the Huai River and the Sea River ? How was the Huai River harnessed after Liberation?
3 Explain what the scope and basic characteristics of Jiangnan's hills are.
4 Why is the Yangtse middle and lower reaches region called "Home of fish and rice"? What major cereal crops and cash crops does it have?
5 How was the Yangtse River Delta formed? What important features does it have? What special characteristics does the agricultural production there have?
6 Compare the characteristics of the communications location and industrial development of the two cities of Wuhan and Shanghai. What similiarities and differences are there?
7 Try to explain the favourable conditions and industrial development of the newly established Xiangzhong Industrial Zone and the E'xi Industrial Base.
8 On a fill in the gaps map of the Yangtse River middle and lower reaches region, fill in: Qinling, Nanling, the Huai River, Dabieshan, Xuefengshan, Wuyishan, Luoxiaoshan, Lushan, Lake Chao, Lake Hongze, Xin'anjiang hydropower station, Gezhouba hydropower station, Zhexi hydropower station, Danjiangkou hydropower station, Jiangdu key water control project; use symbols to mark Dexing, Pingxiang, Dayu, Xuzhou, Daye, Lujiang, Zixing, Lengshuijiang, Huaibei, Huainan, Ma'anshan; use coloured pens to show Huaihua, Xiangfan, Zhuzhou, Wuhan, Yichang, Hefei, Yuxikou, Nantong, Ningbo, Lianyungang, Hengyang, Zhicheng, then use railroads to link them together.

Translated from: Beijing Educational Institute Education Research Department, Beijing City Middle Schools Geography Revision Educational Reference Book, Beijing Publishing House, Beijing, 1984
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lesleyJune 27, 2008 at 4:48 AM
Chapter 8 The south coastal three provinces and one region

Revision Requirements

1 Master the location characteristics of the three southern coastal provinces and one region, and how the South China Sea Islands and the Taiwan Straits were formed and their importance.

2 Understand the region's topographical characteristics of widespread hills and mountains and small scattered plains, and the distribution of the main mountain ranges and plains.

3 Understand and master the region's tropical and subtropical monsoon climatic characteristics and the reasons for them, as well as their influence on hydrological characteristics and agricultural and forestry resources. Master the distribution of the main hydrological systems, and of the main tropical and subtropical crops.

4 Understand the region's characteristics of a winding coastline and many good harbours. Master the distribution of the main ports, cities and railroads.

5 Understand and master the natural conditions and the distribution of the major resources of China's Taiwan Province.

Main Content Points

1 Geographical location and scope

i Location
This is China's region of lowest latitude, southernmost territory, and greatest maritime influence. Zengmu Reef in Guangdong's Nansha Islands is close to the equator.

ii Scope
The region includes Fujian Province (Min), Guangdong Province (Ao), Taiwan Province (Tai) and the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (Gui). Because it is beside the sea, it is the region of China which is most greatly influenced by the sea. Its coastline is about half the total length of coastline for the whole country.

The region has many islands and straits. Although Hongkong and Macao are really Chinese territory, up until now they are still occupied by Britain and Portugal.

2 The predominance of hilly and mountainous terrain
i Widespread hills and mountains
a Mountain ranges: the main ranges are the Wuyishan mountains, the Daiyunshan mountains, the Yunkaidashan mountains and the Taiwan Ranges; they mostly run from north-east to south-west. In the mountains, the forests are luxuriant, and they are the main forestry region of South China. Hills under 500 metres are the most common and widespread.
b The Nanling mountains: Due to prolonged erosion, the Nanling mountains are quite broken; the geological structure runs from east to west and most of the breaches in the mountains give passage from north to south. The Nanling region has large deposits of non-ferrous metal ores and manganese ore (at Fuchuan, for example).
c Karst topography: In Guangxi there are large areas of thick limestone deposits. The limestone region in the Guilin area has strange peaks standing in great numbers in a multitude of poses. With its strange peaks and beautiful waters, it has always been praised as "Guilin mountains and waters first under Heaven", and it is a scenic area sought out by both domestic and foreign tourists.

ii Small plains
The area of plains in the region is not large, indeed they are small, scattered and mostly river valley plains and river mouth deltas.

The Pearl River Delta is China's south coastal region's largest plain. It has been formed by the meeting and combining of the large alluvial deltas of the West and North Rivers and the small alluvial delta of the East River. The terrain of the delta plain is low and flat, there is a dense network of rivers, and it is the major agricultural region in the south coastal region.

3 The South China Sea Islands
i Scope
The South China Sea Islands have been China's territory from ancient times. They include the Dongsha Islands, the Xisha Islands, the Zhongsha Islands and the Nansha Islands, as well as Huangyan Island. Most of them are constructed of coral reefs.
ii Geographical location
The location of the South China Sea Islands is important. They are situated in the transportation conduit between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. This is the advance guard of China's marine defence, and it is also an important base for China's opening up of the resources of the South China Sea (marine resources, seabed oil, and daofenceng ).

4 Tropical and subtropical monsoon climate
i Climatic characteristics
a China's region of most plentiful heat and moisture: The south coastal region has a long summer and no winter, frost and snow are seldom seen, the rainfall is plentiful (annual rainfall is more than 1,500 mm, the rainy season is long), and the rainfall is quite well-distributed. Taiwan's Huoshaoliao is the region of China with the highest rainfall (annual rainfall 6,489 mm).
b Presence of typhoons: This is the region of China which has the most typhoons reaching land. There is quite a lot of typhoon rain.
ii Reasons for formation
The south coastal region is located at low latitudes (the Tropic of Cancer passes through the centre of the region), it is on the edge of the vast ocean, and it is close to the sources of the Pacific Ocean south-east monsoon and the Indian Ocean south-west monsoon. It is for these reasons that the high temperature, high rainfall tropical and subtropical monsoon climate has become a common feature of the three provinces and one region, and that it is the region of most plentiful heat and moisture in China.

5 The rivers and their hydrological characteristics
i Hydrological characteristics
In this region, the rainfall is high and the rainy season is long, so the volume of water in the rivers is great, the flood season is long, and the sediment load is small. Some of the rivers flow through hill and mountain regions, and have many gorges, a steep fall, and plentiful hydro power resources.
ii The Pearl River system and the Min River system
The Pearl River system is the region's largest river system, and is made up of the West River, the North River and the East River. Of them, the West River is the longest; it is the main artery of the Pearl River.
The Min River is the largest river in Fujian Province. It is made up of three large branches, the Jianxi, the Futunxi and the Shaxi.
iii Main hydropower stations
The most important are Guangxi's Xijinshui Power Station (on the West River tributary, the Yu), and Guangdong's Fengshuba Power Station (East River). Fujian's Gutianxi has already undergone stepped development (Min River), with the construction of the Gutian Power Station.

6 Unique style of agricultural production
i Important production region for paddy rice and sugarcane
In this region, paddy rice is commonly grown. The Pearl River Delta and the West Taiwan Plain are major paddy rice production regions. Sugarcane is commonly grown; and the sugar content of the region's sugarcane and production per unit area are both quite high. Guangdong, Fujian, Guangxi and Taiwan are major cane sugar production regions for the whole country.
ii Agricultural characteristics of the Pearl River Delta
a Natural conditions: The Pearl River Delta is low-lying, with many rivers and lakes, there is a dense network of waterways, the soil is rich, there is ample heat and moisture, it is densely populated, and the level of agricultural mechanisation is quite high. It is a major cereal cash cropping base, and an important agricultural region in the south coastal region.
b Suiting measures to local conditions multiple uses: In low-lying easily waterlogged places, a pool is dug out into a pond, and the sludge is heaped up into a raised bed; fish are raised in the pond and, on the bed, sugarcane is planted, or mulberries or fruit trees are grown. The silkworm droppings and sugarcane leaves are used to rear the fish, and the pond sludge is used to fertilise the fields, forming characteristic mulberry tree-fish ponds, fruit tree-fish ponds and sugarcane-fish ponds. Because of this system, agriculture, side-line production, and the processing of agricultural products have been able to make further advances.
iii Tropical crops and fruit
The region is the base for China's commercial production of tropical crops, and they are mainly distributed in the tropical regions, Hainan Island, the Leizhou Peninsula, southern Guangxi and Taiwan. The main tropical cash crops are rubber, sisal hemp, oil palm, coconuts, coffee, cocoa, and pepper. There are various different types of fruit. The main ones are bananas, tangerines, pineapples, litchis, and longans.

7 Ports, railroads and main cities

i Main ports
The coastline of this region is long, with many harbours. Guangzhou's Huangpu Port and Zhanjiang Port are major foreign trading ports of China. There are also the ports of Haikou, Shantou, Dongfang, Xiamen and Fuzhou.
ii Railroads linked to the ports
a The Jing-Guang, Guang-Shen and Guang-San railroads meet at Guangzhou .
b Zhanjiang has the Li-Zhan line, which meets the Xiang-Gui line at Litang .
c The Ying-Xia line and the Nan-Fu line link Fuzhou and Xiamen .
iii Major cities
Guangzhou, Nanning, Fuzhou, Xiamen, Guilin, Liuzhou.

8 The motherland's treasure island - Taiwan
i Scope
Taiwan Province includes Taiwan Island and a lot of small islands in the Penghu Islands and Diaoyu Islands, with a total area of around 36,000 square kilometres. Taiwan Island is China's largest island. Taiwan is an inseparable part of China's territory, and the Chinese people will definitely complete the sacred mission of reunification.
ii The formation and characteristics of the Taiwan Strait
In the past, Taiwan Island was once connected to the mainland in one entity. Later, because of subsidence of the earth's crust, the sea-water intruded forming the Taiwan Strait. Taiwan Island became a continental island.
The characteristics of the Taiwan Strait are:
a The Taiwan Strait is classified as shallow water continental shelf. It is the "Corridor on the Seas" linking the East China Sea and the South China Sea.
b The Penghu Islands guard the 'throat' of the Taiwan Strait; they are a hub for north-south shipping.
c The territorial waters of the Strait are rich in aquatic resources; it is quite a good fishing ground, and the seabed has oil and natural gas resources.
iii Taiwan Island's mountains and rivers
a Mountains predominate in the topography, making up two-thirds of the total area of the island. The central mountain range runs through the whole island from north to south, towering in form, the many peaks tall and graceful. The main peak, Yushan, is 3950 metres above sea level, and is the highest peak in the east of China. The western part is the Taixi Plain; the land is fertile and the growing of paddy rice is widespread.
b The rivers are short and fast-flowing, and the water power resources are plentiful. The Zhuoshuixi is Taiwan's longest river. Riyuetan is Taiwan's largest lake and the Riyuetan Hydropower Station has been built there.
iv Plentiful products
a Abundant agricultural and forestry products: The forest resources are plentiful, and there are all sorts of varieties of trees. The camphor tree is famous, and the quantity of camphor produced is first in the world. Large quantities of paddy rice and cane sugar are produced. Fruit is produced all year round, and the bananas, pineapples and tea are renowned in China and abroad.
b Great variety of minerals: The magma of the Taiwan Ranges is active, and it is an important region for gold and copper mining. The west is a region of scattered mineral deposition; the most important are coal and oil. In the north-west, the Datun Volcanoes are rich in natural sulphur.
c The surrounding shallow-water seas have a lot of aquatic resources, and the west is a major sea-salt producing region. The seabed has reserves of oil and natural gas.
v Main cities and seaports
Taibei, Jilong, Gaoxiong.

Revision Methods

1 When revising this region's location and scope, you need to use the map to observe the low latitude of the region, and take note that every province and region in the region is next to the sea. When revising, you must grasp these two strands, because they are the factors which play a leading role in the geographical environment of the region. If these two points are mastered, it will lay the foundation for studying the content on climate, rivers and distribution of tropical crops later on.

2 When revising the region's topography and rivers, you need to note the similarities and differences between the Pearl River Delta and the Yangtze River Delta. From the point of view of distribution, landform, causal factors, and resources, conduct an analytical comparison. Apart from this, when comparing the two great east-west oriented mountain ranges, Nanling and Qinling, you can contrast them as watershed divides and their distribution. You can also use a table to distinguish their similarities and differences. When revising the rivers section, you need to base consideration of the hydrological characteristics of the rivers on the climatic and topographical features; you need to master their cause and effect relationship. The Pearl River system has many tributaries and the names of each section of them are different as well. To aid mastery, you can use straight lines to progressively draw a blank sketch map of the Pearl River System after the "Pearl River Sketch Map" on page 29 of the textbook, and fill in the important place names as you revise, to consolidate recall.

3 According to the region's transportation characteristics, starting with the region's bordering on the ocean and having many ports, draw a sketch map of the location of all the ports in the region, and then progressively fill in the railroads linking each port to the national railroad network.

4 When revising the geography of Taiwan Province, you need to make plenty of use of the map, to figure out and clarify Taiwan's scope and location. As far as Taiwan's resources are concerned, stress the word 'treasure'. Taiwan has a lot of resources. You can summarise, sum up and remember them separately in three categories, above ground resources, underground mineral reserves and marine resources, to help mastery.

5 This region is the last of the eastern seaboard monsoon regions. When revising you need to conduct a proper comparison with the natural environment and economic conditions of the North East region, the Yellow River middle and lower reaches region, and the Yangtze River middle and lower reaches region. In this way, not only will you strengthen understanding and recall, but you will also avoid mixing them up.

Thinking and Exercises

1 On a fill-in-the-gaps map of the southern coastal three provinces and one region, fill in:
a The Dongsha, Nansha, Zhongsha and Xisha Islands, and Huangyan Island and Diaoyu Island; the Beibu Gulf, Beihai port, Zhanjiang port, Xiamen port, Dongfang port, Haikou, Jilong, and Gaoxiong.
b The Yunkai Dashan, Daiyunshan, Wuyishan, Nanling, and Yushan mountains, the Min, North, East, and South Rivers, Zhuoshuixi river, Riyuetan lake.
2 Explain the reasons for formation of the Taiwan Strait and the South China Sea Islands. What importance do they have in terms of geographical location?
3 From latitudinal position and sea-land location, analyse the major climatic characteristics of the south coastal three provinces and one region, and their influence on the river hydrology.
4 Analyse the Pearl River Delta's special agricultural character, and its relationship to topography and climate.
5 Briefly describe the characteristics of Taiwan Province's natural environment. What are its major products?
6 Try to compare the differences between the agricultural characteristics of the Pearl River Delta and the Yangtze River Delta. Where are the reasons for this found?
7 From Guilin through Wuhan to Shanghai what rivers do you pass along? If you take the train, which lines do you take? Where do you change trains?
8 Draw a sketch map of the route from Shanghai taking the steamer upriver on the Yangtze to Zhicheng (Hubei Province), changing to the train passing through Huaihua and Liuzhou to Zhanjiang port, then changing to seagoing vessel and going via Guangzhou to Xiamen (you need to show the directionality of the outgoing journey). Moreover, show and note in proper order of sequence the railroad lines, inland and coastal shipping routes on the journey, and the names of the province-level administrative regions, and the seas and straits.
9 Draw an outline sketch map of the island of Taiwan. Draw in the general location of the Zhuoshuixi river, Riyuetan lake, Yushan mountain, the Penghu Islands, Diaoyu Island, and the Tropic of Cancer, as well as the major cities. Check against the map and practice repeatedly.

Translated from: Beijing Educational Institute Education Research Department, Beijing City Middle Schools Geography Revision Educational Reference Book, Beijing Publishing House, Beijing, 1984
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lesleyJune 27, 2008 at 4:51 AM
Chapter 10 Qinghai and Tibet

Revision Requirements

1 Understand the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau's geographical location and the causal factors for its being the highest (above sea level) and the youngest large plateau in the world.

2 Master the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau's surface features of high relief, many mountain ranges, many lakes and many glaciers, and the rich geothermal resources.

3 Understand and master a major feature of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau region, its high altitude cold climate, and its influence on agricultural and pastoral production, as well as the special characteristics of the distribution of the major agricultural regions of Qinghai and Tibet.

4 Master the distribution of the major mining, forestry, and hydropower resources of the two provinces and regions of Qinghai and Tibet, and an overview of the major highways and towns.

Content Requirements

1 "The Roof of the World" - the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

a The formation of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is the world's highest (average altitude, above 4,000 metres, highest peak, Mount Zhumulangma , 8,848 metres above sea level) and youngest (with a short uplift period) large plateau. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau was uplifted on a large-scale powerfully only within the last several million years, forming today's "Roof of the World". And today it still continues to rise, and the geothermal resources are plentiful.

b Features of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
The surface form of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is undulating, and relative altitudes are not great. The mountain ranges on the plateau are oriented east-west. From north to south they are the Kunlun Mountains-the Bayankala Mountains, the Kalakunlun Mountains-the Tanggula Mountains, Gangdisi Mountains-the Nianqingtanggula Mountains, the Himalayas.

c The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has snow all year round and glaciers are widespread; it is China's major solid water reservoir, and it is also the source of China's major rivers (the Yangtze, the Yellow River, the Lancang, the Nu River, and the Yaluzangbu).

d There are many lakes on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau; it is the plateau-lake region of the world at the greatest height above sea level. Most of the lakes here are tectonic lakes and saltwater lakes (continental lakes). The major lakes are China's largest saltwater lake, Qinghai Lake, and the world's highest lake, Namucuo (4,718 metres above sea level).

e Due to the shortness of the period of formation of the plateau, there are many places where magmatic activity is frequent, and the geothermal resources are plentiful. They are mainly distributed between the Gangdisi and Himalaya Ranges; the types of geothermal shows include hot springs, boiling springs, geysers, and water and heat explosions. The types are various, the activity is strong; they can all be utilised. An experimental geothermal power station has been constructed at Yangbajing as a start to using the geothermal resource to generate electricity.

2 The unique high altitude cold climate

a Climatic characteristics
Average annual temperatures on the plateau are low, winters are cold and summers are cool, the frost-free period is short. Sunshine hours are high, there are many clear days, and the variation between daytime and nighttime temperatures is great. Rainfall is quite low, however, it is not extremely arid.

b Causes of formation
Due to the high relief of the plateau, the air is thin; the sun's radiation is strong, and the sunshine hours are high. The rainfall comes mainly from the Indian Ocean's southwest monsoon. In the south-east part, the rainfall is quite high. Due to the mountain range barriers, it is not easy for air currents to enter the interior of the plateau, and the rainfall is quite low. However, because the temperatures on the plateau are low, evaporation is weak, and so it is not particularly arid.

c Relationship to agricultural and pastoral production
i Unfavourable conditions: temperatures are relatively low, the frost-free period is short, only one crop can be taken per year. This type of climate suits the growth of cold-tolerant, short growing period, and drought tolerant crops, for example qingke barley and wheat. As for pastoral farming, it suits cold-tolerant domestic animals such as yaks, sheep and goats.
ii Favourable conditions: The strength of the sun's radiation, high number of sunshine hours, and large variation in night and day temperatures are favourable to the plants' carrying out of photosynthesis, which makes the crops accumulate large quantities of nutrients. Because the temperatures are relatively low the reproductive period is extended, which means that crops in the wheat family have good-sized ears, heavy seeds, and high yields. Although the pastures are short, their quality is high.

3 The four major agricultural regions

a The Huangshui Valley and the Yellow River Valley
These two valleys are situated in the north-east corner of Qinghai Province, southeast of the Qilian Mountain Range. The valleys are quite wide and the relief is quite low (over 2,000 metres). The temperature is quite high and the frost-free period is more than three months long. The rainfall is quite high (300-400 milliimetres). Loess is distributed widely, and the soils are quite fertile. It is the main agricultural region of Qinghai Province.

b The Qaidam Basin
The Qaidam Basin is situated between the A'erjin, Qilian and Kunlun mountain ranges. In ancient times, this was a large lake basin, but climatic change made the original luxuriant organic life, after undergoing a long period of geological deposition, gradually turn into oil and coal. The lake water evaporated and dried up, forming rich salt mines. In the process of the basin's subsidence, the surrounding mountains rose, and magmatic activity was frequent, and this formed quite a few non-ferrous metal ores. The well-known minerals are Lenghu's oil, Yuka's coal, Cha'erhan's silvite , Chaka's lake salt. and Xitieshan's lead and zinc. The bottom of the basin, with its flat topography, is amenable to mechanised development and cultivation; there is plentiful alpine snow-melt and groundwater, and it is possible to channel the water for irrigation to develop agriculture. So the area has been given praise-name, "The Treasure Bowl". Here, now, a lot of state-run farms and industrial regions have been constructed, and Golmud and Dachaidan have become new towns and cities.

c The Yaluzangbu River Valley
Between the Himalayas, Gangdisi Mountains, and Nianqingtanggula Mountains, is the Yaluzangbu River Valley. The water volume of the Yaluzangbu River is very great, and running east to west at the place near the 95ºE longitude where it makes a great turn, it passes through the Himalayas forming a large gorge. The hydropower resource is plentiful, the water energy reserves second only to the Yangtze. Here the valley is broad (below 4,000 metres), and the southwest monsoon from the Indian Ocean can blow in; the rainfall is quite high (400-500 millmetres). In addition the winters do not receive the effects of the cold wave, the climate is relatively warm; it has good conditions for the development of agricultural and pastoral farming. The main crops are qingke, and in recent years, large areas of winter wheat have been grown. This is the main grain-producing region of Tibet.

d Tibet's "Jiangnan"
In some of the valleys and small basins on the southern slopes of that part of the Himalayas within China's borders, the southwest monsoon follows the slopes upwards. Here, there are large amounts of orographic rainfall, the climate is warm and humid, and the valley scenery takes on a tropical or subtropical appearance. The Chayu region, southeast of the Yalucangbu River's great turn, is at less than 3,000 metres above sea level. In the fertile river valley region, there are many tea gardens, orange groves, and paddy fields; everywhere Jiangnan-like scenes appear. Here, the vertical distribution of mountain climates and vegetation is marked.

4 Urgent attention to the development of communications

Before Liberation, communications on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau were extremely backward, and the yak was the main means of transport. After Liberation, four new highways were constructed: the Chuan-Zang, Qing-Zang, Dian-Zang, and Xin-Zang Highways . The highways connect the two great regions, the South-West and the North-West. The Qing-Zang railroad, currently under construction, already runs from Xining to Golmud.

5 Main cities

Xining is situated in the Huangshui river valley; after the Lan-Qing railroad was opened to traffic, industry has developed rapidly and there are quite a few industrial sectors. It is the largest industrial city on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau region.

Lhasa is a famous historical city, it has the famous Potala Palace; it is now the centre of Tibet's highway network, and also has air links connecting with all the various parts of China, industrial and city construction are developing rapidly.

Revision methods

1 When revising the location of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, you need to read the China relief map conscientiously, and note Tibet's five neighbouring countries and its latitudinal position. Although the latitudinal position here is equivalent to that of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, because the relief is high, it produces a unique plateau climate. With regard to sea and land position, you need to note the region's relationship to the Indian Ocean, and the orientation of the mountain ranges on the fringes of the plateau.

2 While you are revising, you need to take hold of the characteristic of "high relief", and use this thread of thought to consider and analyse issues. High relief is the leading factor in the development of this region's natural geographical environment. Because the relief is high, a unique high altitude cold climate has developed; the relief being high leads to sunshine hours being high, and the mountains on the plateau having a lot of snow and glaciers, and being the source region for great rivers. Furthermore, the sections of river on the plateau often have swift currents, large falls, and plentiful hydropower resources. The unique climate has huge effects on agricultural and pastoral production, and at the same time, it also affects the development of communications and transport. Therefore, the relief characteristics of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau are the main point of all this chapter's main points.

3 When revising the climatic characteristics, you need to sort out and clarify the basic contributing factors. You can refer to the Map of average January and July temperatures in the "China Atlas", and read the Qinghai-Tibet Region isotherm map, to arrive at your conclusion regarding winter cold and summer heat; furthermore, by a comparison with regions at the same latitude, you will be able to understand more clearly the influence of relief on climate.

4 Several relatively low regions on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau: the three valleys (Huangshui Valley, Yellow River Valley, Yaluzangbu River Valley), Tibet's "Jiangnan", and the "Qaidam Basin". By reading the map, clarify their position, and understand their climatic characteristics and the influence of those characteristics on agricultural and pastoral farming. You need to master for the Three Valleys, what the favourable conditions for the development of agriculture are, for the Qaidam Basin, why it is called the "Treasure Bowl" (you can explain this according to the "Sketch map of the Qaidam Basin" in the textbook), and you need to be able to fill in the distribution of mining and communications lines on a blank map. You can do a comparison of the "Sketch map of vertical changes in the vegetation in the Chayu region" in the Tibet's "Jiangnan" section of the textbook, with the Hengduan Mountains region, to deepen understanding of the characteristic of very marked vertical changes in the vegetation, due to climatic differences.

For thought and practice

1 Read the Qinghai-Tibet relief map. Explain what sorts of features the relief of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has.
2 What are the characteristics of the climate of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau? What is their influence on agricultural and pastoral farming?
3 Why is it said that the Qaidam Basin is a "Treasure Bowl"?
4 What favourable natural conditions does the Yaluzangbu river valley offer for agricultural and pastoral production?
5 What large rivers is the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau the source region for? Why are the hydropower resources of the Yalucangbu River particularly rich?
6 Why has the Chayu region been called "Tibet's Jiangnan"?
7 Comparing the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and the Yunnan-Guizhou Highlands, say what the differences in relief characteristics are.
8 On a fill in the blanks map of the Qinghai Tibet region, fill in:
the Qilian Mountains, the Kunlun Mountains, the Bayankala Mountains, the Tanggula Mountains, the Gangdisi Mountains, the Nianqingtanggula Mountains, the Himalayas, the Hengduan Mountains, Mt Zhumulangma, and Mt Qiaogeli, as well as the major rivers, lakes and highways (including their end points).

Translated from: Beijing Educational Institute Education Research Department, Beijing City Middle Schools Geography Revision Educational Reference Book, Beijing Publishing House, Beijing, 1984
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lesleyJune 27, 2008 at 4:52 AM
Chapter 11 Xinjiang

Revision Requirements

1 Understand the following features of Xinjiang: it is located in the interior of China's North-west, its area is vast, its international borders are long, its neighbouring countries are many, and it has many minority nationalities.

2 Understand Xinjiang's "three mountains sandwiching two basins" relief profile; master the natural geographical summary situation of the Tianshan Mountains, Tarim Basin, and Junggar Basin .

3 Understand that Xinjiang's pastoral farms are vast and that it is a major livestock farming base in China, and that oasis agriculture is a special feature of Xinjiang's agriculture.

4 Understand the development of Xinjiang's communications and the distribution of the major cities.

Content Requirements

1 The important geographical location

a Location
Xinjiang is located in the interior of China's Northwest, and borders respectively on the Soviet Union, Mongolia, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India.
b Area
The whole region is more than 1.6 million square kilometres in area; it is the largest province-level administrative region in the country.
c Nationalities
This region is one of China's regions of concentrated settlement of minority nationalities; there are thirteen nationalities the main ones being Uygur, Kazak, Hui, and Kirgiz , and among them the Uygur nationality has the largest population.

2 The "three mountains sandwiching two basins" relief profile

a The Tianshan Range
i Characteristics: The Tianshan Range is made up of several east-west oriented parallel mountain ridges, and between the ridges is a series of valleys and basins. Because of long periods of geological movement there is clear faulting and uplift, and it is a quite typical folded fault-block mountain. In the peaks there are many glaciers and year-round snow. On the northern slopes, the forest and pasture resource conditions are good.
ii The Turfan Basin: This is the Tianshan region's fault depression basin, and it is the lowest point in China (-154 metres below sea level). The basin is deep in the Interior, and is arid with a low rainfall. The summers are scorching hot, the hottest absolute temperatures reach 47.8º. The people use karez to channel the groundwater for irrigation, so that here has become a famed home of melons and fruit.

b The Altai Range
The Altai Range is located in the north and northeast of Xinjiang; the range takes on a northwest-southeast orientation, and averages more than 3,000 metres above sea level. the rainfall in the mountains is quite plentiful, and there are many forests and metallic mineral resources.

c The Kunlun Range
The Kunlun Range is in the south of Xinjiang, in the interior, and it is very difficult for water vapour from the ocean to reach it; for this reason the rainfall is very sparse. The average height of the Kunlun Range is more than 6,000 metres above sea level. Mount Qiaogeli at 8,611 metres above sea level is the second highest peak in the world, and is located in the Karakoram Mountains on the border between China and Pakistan.

4 The two great basins

The Tarim Basin is in the south of Xinjiang; its area stands at about half of the total area of the region. It is shaped like a closed rhombus .

The Junggar Basin is in the north of Xinjiang; its area stands at about one third of the total area of the region. It is shaped like a closed triangle.

The table below sets out the relief, climatic and river features of the two large basins :

Basin Relief Climate
Rivers
Height above sea level Topography Structure Temperature Rainfall
Tarim Around 1,000 metres Slopes from southwest to northeast Ring-shaped, has the largest region of desert Heat quantity is quite great, classed as warm temperate Extremely arid, little rain, less than 50 mm All are continental rivers, Tarim River
Junggar Around 500 metres Slopes from east to west The ring shape is not complete, the desert is quite small and most of it is stable. Heat quantity is less than Nanjiang, classed as medium temperate Rainfall slightly greater, less than 200 mm Most are continental rivers, the Irtysh River flows into the Arctic Ocean

3 Oases and reclaimed areas

a Oasis agriculture
This region is in a non-monsoon region, and the rainfall is very low (annual rainfall is less than 200 millimetres) and the vegetation is sparce; there is a lot of desert wilderness. However, when the snows and glaciers on the high surrounding mountains melt in the summer, they form alluvial plains at the foot of the mountains, and there, oases with ample water resources occur.

Because the water resources are ample and the soil quality is quite good, the people of the various nationalities of Xinjiang channelled the water for irrigation, and have developed oasis agriculture on the oases. Every oasis then, equates to one irrigated agricultural region.

b Major reclaimed areas
After Liberation, water conservancy projects were built, wasteland was reclaimed and farmland was created, and north and south of Tianshan, many reclaimed areas were opened up. Of them, Manass reclaimed area in Beijiang is the largest; it supplies a large quantity of commodity grains and beet sugar to the state. Shihezi is a newly arisen city in the reclaimed area.

c The great variety of crops
Xinjiang has a great variety of crops. The major crops are wheat, maize, cotton, and sugar beet. Hami's melons and Turfan's grapes are also very famous. In the Tarim and Turfan Basins temperatures and sunshine hours are high; they are China's major long-staple cotton producing regions.

4 Major livestock raising base
The Tianshan Mountains are Xinjiang's major pastoral region. The pastoral farms are distributed in a vertical strip. Taking the northern slopes as an example, below 1,700 metres above sea level is the winter pastures, and above 1,700 metres is the summer pastures. The Xinjiang finewool sheep, the Altai Mountains fat-tailed sheep, and the Ili horse are all fine animal breeds; Xinjiang is China's major livestock raising base.

5 Communications and cities
Xinjiang's highways take Urumqi as their centre, and form a network over the whole region.

Xinjiang's railroads connect the areas north and south of Tianshan, and the Lan-Xin railroad links to the railroad network for the whole country.

Because it is vast in area with many high mountains and deserts, air communications occupy a prominent position in this region. Urumqi is the flight-line centre, and has connections to many other cities.

Urumqi is Xinjiang's communications centre, and it is also the major industrial centre for the north-west frontier region. Apart from this, Kashi, Hami and Yining are all major towns in Xinjiang.

Revision methods

1 When revising, you need to proceed from Xinjiang's two features of geographical location and land area. Because these two features directly influence this region's natural environment, agricultural and pastoral production, and communications and transport, when you are revising you need to take hold of the three words "big, interior, most", namely, the area is the largest, the basins are the largest, the deserts are the largest, the continental rivers are the largest, the pastures are the largest.

2 When you are revising Xinjiang's natural conditions, you need to clarify on the map the "three mountains sandwiching two basins" relief profile. The three mountain ranges are the lines of separation for this region's two basins. The "three mountains sandwiching two basins" relief profile, because of the vast areas, and the differences in altitude, have led to the formation of different natural environments, with the aspects of climate, hydrology and vegetation all differing. For the two basins, revision using the comparative tabulation method together with the map will be quite effective. The Tianshan Range is a very important mountain range in Xinjiang. When you are revising it, you need to take note of its several special features.

3 When revising the ring-shaped structure of the Tarim Basin, you can draw a Tarim Basin sketch map to show: From the basin's fringes to its centre, in succession, regions of gobi shoals, alluvial fan plains and sand dunes. After this, seriously consider these issues: why there is this type of arrangement, why it is necessary to build karez for irrigation and not ordinary irrigation channels, and why Nanjiang's highways are basically ring-shaped.

4 When you are revising, you need to note some major threads, and these are the leading factors influencing the natural environment of the region - it is in the interior, and the rainfall is sparse. Aridity has a great influence on all of the following: Xinjiang's climate, rivers, relief, agricultural development, agricultural products, livestock raising, distribution of points of human settlement, as well as communications. You need to analyse Xinjiang's climatic characteristics and the causes bringing them about from a relief map of the whole country, and on the basis of these conditions, link it in with your thinking on the characteristics of the rivers, vegetation, agricultural and pastoral production, and communications. This will facilitate consolidation of recall.

For thought and practice.

1 What is oasis agriculture? Why have karez come about? What are the special features of both of these?
2 What are the characteristics of the Tarim Basin's ring-shaped structure?
3 Compare the natural environments of Nanjiang and Beijiang and say what the differences are. How did they each come about?
4 Draw a Xinjiang region sketch map from memory. On the map draw in the countries and provinces and regions it shares borders with; the two basins and three ranges; the Tarim and Irtysh Rivers; and Urumqi City, Shihezi, and Karamai.
5 Taking the train from Shanghai (taking the Longhai line west) to Urumqi City, in succession, what relief regions, temperature zones and humidity zones will your route pass through? What provinces and regions will you pass though? And in succession what are the rail lines you will take?
6 Where can the reasons for the special sweetness of Xinjiang's melons and fruit be found? What regions are suited to growing long-staple cotton? Why?

Translated from: Beijing Educational Institute Education Research Department, Beijing City Middle Schools Geography Revision Educational Reference Book, Beijing Publishing House, Beijing, 1984
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lesleyJune 27, 2008 at 4:55 AM
Chapter 12 The Northern Interior two regions and one province

Revision Requirements

1 Understand the importance of the extent and geographical position of the Northern Interior regions and province.

2 Understand and master the predominantly highland landforms of the region and the characteristics of a typical temperate continental climate.

3 Understand the reasons for the widespread distribution of grasslands and deserts in the region, the characteristics of agricultural and pastoral farming, and the control of deserts.

4 Understand and master the distribution of the region's three irrigated agricultural areas, the grassland grazing lands, industry and mining, railroads and major cities.

Important content points

I Position and Extent

It is located in China's northern interior, includes the two regions and one province of Inner Mongolia, Ningxia and Gansu, and is the region which stretches across the greatest latitude. To the north, it borders the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of Mongolia.

II The extensive highland landforms

1 Inner Mongolian Highlands
The Inner Mongolian Highlands start west of the Daxing'an Ranges and extend all the way to the north-west of Gansu. To the east of the ranges they fall away to the Dongbei Plains; the gradient is quite steep. To the west of the ranges, there is a gradual transition between the mountains and the highlands, and the slope is really very gentle. It also includes the Ordos Highlands, the Ningxia Plains, and the Hetao Plains. The topography on the Highlands is gently rolling, dissection from water flow is slight, and on the Gobi sands sand dunes are widespread.

2 The Loess Plateau and the Liupanshan mountain range
These are spread over the loess regions of southern Ningxia and eastern Gansu, and are part of the Loess Plateau. The Liupanshan mountain range towers above the Loess Plateau. The main peak is 2,936 metres above sea level, the mountain roads are winding and there are six large spirals, hence the name Liupanshan.

3 The Ningxia Plains and the Hetao Plains
These are comparatively low-lying parts of the highlands. They are areas of dissection and subsidence, alluvial plains which have been formed by the continual deposition of silt by the Yellow River.

4 The Qilianshan mountain region
The Qilianshan mountain region is located in the border area of the two provinces of Qinghai and Gansu. It is made up of a system of parallel mountain ranges and valleys, mainly taking on a northwest-southeast orientation. The areas above 4,300 metres in the Qilianshan region have permanent snow and glaciers. The subalpine belt below the glaciers has abundant rainfall and extensive forests, and alpine grasslands can be found throughout. The rainfall distribution gradually decreases from the southeast to the northwest.

5 The Hexi Corridor
The Hexi Corridor is located to the north of Qilianshan. Its topography is quite low, its shape is long and narrow, and it is west of the Yellow River, hence the name. The Corridor is more than 1,000 kilometres in total length, the width at the base varies from several kilometres to two or three hundred kilometres. At the north of the Corridor there are areas of low hills, and in some places it links up and becomes one with the great sandy desert.

From ancient times, the Hexi Corridor was an important communications thoroughfare. There are water sources, irrigated agriculture and settlements, which facilitate communications, and in ancient times, the famous "Silk Route" passed through it. Today's Lan-Xin line also goes through it. Dunhuang is located in the west of the Corridor, and is an important communications station. The art treasury there, at the Mogao Grottoes (Thousand Buddha Caves), is world famous.

III The typical temperate continental climate

The major part of this region is located in the mid-temperate zone, and is classified as arid and semi-arid. Only the easternmost Daxing'an mountains region is classified as humid and semi-humid. Because of its length and narrowness from east to west and relative closeness or distance from the sea, rainfall decreases from east to west.

IV Agriculture, pastoral farming and desert control

1 Important irrigated agricultural areas
"Water" is the key to the development of this region's agriculture. Therefore, the major agricultural areas are all to be found in districts with ample water and which are suited to irrigation. The Hexi Corridor, the Ningxia Plains, and the Hetao Plains are the region's main irrigated agricultural areas. They are respectively the cash cropping bases of Gansu, Ningxia and Inner Mongolia. Some of the important cities are also distributed in the irrigated agricultural areas.

An overview of the natural and economic aspects of each of the three major agricultural irrigated areas is set out in the table below:

Title Hexi Corridor Ningxia Plains Hetao Plains
Location At the northern foot of the Qilian Mountains, west of the Yellow River Between the Helan Range and the Ordos Highlands Between the Yinshan Range and the Ordos Highlands
Irrigation water source Qilian Mountains snow melt, groundwater From the Yellow River, gravity irrigation from south to north From the Yellow River, gravity irrigation from west to east
Historical overview Long history, important thoroughfare on the ancient "Silk Road" Qin canals, Han canals, Tang lai canals, has a one to two thousand year history Opened up relatively recently.
Major agricultural products Spring wheat, maize, cotton, melons and fruit Wheat, paddy rice, medicinal herbs, and animal products Tan sheep Spring wheat, millet, beet
Major Cities Yumen, Jiuquan, Dunhuang (art treasury) Yinchuan Hohhot, Baotou

2 The extensive pastoral regions

The grazing lands in this region are extremely extensive. From the Daxing'an Mountains westward is a vast grassland region. In the Hulunbei'er League and the Xilinguole League the grass is high and dense, it is typical temperate grassland and fine grazing land. Further west the rainfall decreases, and the grass varieties become sparse and short. In the desert regions west of the Helan mountain range, the grazing lands are confined to oases. The Qilian mountains have fine summer alpine pastures, and winter pastures. There are also pastures in the Helan mountains.

The pastoral farming of the region holds an important place nationally, and every year it provides large quantities of pastoral products to the state. Now in the pastoral areas, a lot of communes and brigades have changed from nomadic herding to settled grazing.

3 The distribution and control of deserts

The area of desert in this region is quite large, mainly distributed in the vast region west of the Helan mountain range, as well as on the Ordos Highlands.

Before Liberation, situations of "Sand dunes press on the manor, shifting sand buries the fields", and "Sand advances, people retreat" could be seen everywhere. After Liberation, the people of all nationalities in the desert areas became masters over the sand. The main sand control measures are the planting of grass and trees, and the stabilisation of sand dunes, and a new face on things, of "People drive out, sand retreats", is now progressively being realised. Minqin County in the Hexi Corridor and Wushenzhao Commune in the Ordos Highlands are both places where sand control has been highly effective.

V Railroads and major cities

1 Main trunk lines
The main railroads in this region are the Jing-Bao, Bao-Lan, Lan-Xin, Ji-Er, Bin-Zhou, Jing-Tong, Lan-Qing and Long-Hai lines. The Ji-Er line and the Bin-Zhou line are international lines, linking with the Soviet Union and Mongolia. The Jing-Tong line is one of the trunk lines linking Dongbei and Huabei.

2 Main cities and industries
Lanzhou is the North-West region's most important rail communications centre and industrial city. Four main trunk lines meet there, the Long-Hai, Lan-Xin, Bao-Lan and Lan-Qing. The petrochemicals industry is quite well known.

Baotou is the famous "Steel City on the Grasslands". It has favourable conditions for the development of an iron and steel industry. To the north is the Baiyun Ebo iron mine (a rare earth intergrowth mine), nearby are the Baotou coal mine and the convenient water resources of the Hetao Plains, as well as convenient rail transport (the two arterial lines, Jing-Bao and Bao-Lan meet there).

Hohhot is the political, economic and cultural centre of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. The Jing-Bao line passes through it, and the woollen textiles and sugar refinery industries are quite well known. It is also an historically ancient city; an historic site, the Zhaojun tomb, is in the south of the city.

The three mining regions of Baiyin, Jinchuan and Shizuishan: Baiyin's non-ferrous metals industry (copper, lead and zinc), Jinchuan's nickel and copper industries, and Shizuishan's coal industry are all important non-ferrous metals and coal bases.

Revision Methods

1 Fully utilising the "Map of China's Landforms" and the "Position of the Northern Interior Two Regions and One Province within the whole of China Map" in the "Geography of China" textbook, master the position of the region in the whole country and its outline characteristics, as well as its position in terms of relative distance from the sea. This will facilitate laying the groundwork for the revision of the region's climate, irrigated agriculture, grassland grazing regions, and desert control.

2 When revising the climate of the region, three maps in "Geography of China" (Part I) or "The Chinese Atlas" should be used, "China's temperature zone divisions", "China's humidity zone divisions", and "China's annual rainfall distribution". Use these to analyse the region's rainfall distribution pattern, and to grasp that the region's temperate continental climate characteristics, as well as differences in distance from the sea, cause clear changes in the climate and vegetation from east to west.

3 Because most of the region is classified as arid and semi-arid, "water" is an important factor in the natural environment and in economic development. Therefore, when mastering the distribution of the region's commercial grain production bases, grazing lands and deserts, arterial railways and cities, they must all be linked to the water resources (including above and below ground). This will facilitate understanding and recall.

4 When revising, you need to look at several of the illustrations in the textbook to help your recall.

One, when looking at the "Hexi Corridor topographical cross-section diagram" in the textbook, note the distribution pattern of the two sides of the alluvial plains. You can contrast it with the ring-shaped structure of the Tarim Basin, and identify their similarities and differences.

Two, by looking at the "Distribution map of important canals on the Ningxia Plains", understand the importance of the Yellow River to irrigation, master several famous ancient canals, as well as the characteristics of gravity flow irrigation along the contours of the land.

Three, from the "Sketch Map of Canal Distribution on the Hetao Plains ", you can see the direction of flow of the canals, and this can be contrasted with the canals of the Ningxia Plains, to identify their similarities and differences.

Four, from the "Minqin County Sand Stabilisation sector sketch map", analyse how "sand advances, people retreat" changed to "people drive out, sand retreats". You can also refer to Chapter 14 in the textbook, "Protection and expansion of forest resources" and "Planting shelter forests", and the accompanying illustrations.

Five, when you are revising "The extensive pasture lands" from the text book, you should read and analyse the change in the rainfall data at each place from the "Annual rainfall (mm) in the North Interior by district" chart on Page 82. From this, understand and master the horizontal and vertical distribution characteristics of the rainfall and vegetation.

Six, using the point and line method, master the four railroads with Lanzhou as the centre (Long-Hai line, Lan-Xin line, Bao-Lan line, Lan-Qing line), the two railroads with Baotou as the centre (Jing-Bao line, Bao-Lan line), the two railroads with Beijing as the centre which connect with the region (Jing-Bao line, Jing-Tong line), as well as the international railroads connecting the region with other countries (Ji-Er line, Bin-Zhou line). This will help recall. You must grasp the main industrial sectors and the outstanding features of each city.

Seven, this region is the last regional division in Chinese Geography. When revising, use the tabular comparison method to contrast the different characteristics of the natural environment and economic development of China's eight regional divisions. For example, the first five divisions are located in the eastern monsoon region. The dominant factor influencing the natural geographical environment of those regions is temperature. Because of the differences in latitude, the climate and the vegetation vary, basically varying in a north south direction. Qinghai, Tibet, western Sichuan, and western Yunnan are highland regions. The dominant factor influencing the natural geographical environment of those regions is relief. Therefore, the climate and vegetation vary vertically. In this region and the Xinjiang North-West Interior region, the dominant factor influencing the natural geographical environment is rainfall, and the climate and vegetation vary from east to west. A mastery of these basic laws is very important for the revision of the Chinese Regional Geography section.

To Think About, and Practice Exercises

1 On a blank map of the Northern Interior two regions and one province, fill in: the region's neighbouring countries, and the neighbouring provinces and regions; the Mongolian Highlands, Loess Plateau, Ordos Highlands, Hulunbei'er Highlands; the Hetao Plains, Ningxia Plains, and Hexi Corridor; the Daxing'an Mountains, Yinshan, Helanshan, Liupanshan, and Qilianshan; the Yellow River, the Western Liao River, and the E'erguna River; Liujia Gorge, Qingtong Gorge and Sanshenggong; the Shizuishan (add the symbol for coal), Baiyin (add the symbols for copper, lead and zinc), Jinchuan (add the symbols for copper and nickel), Baiyun Ebo (add the symbol for iron), Yumen (add the symbol for oil), and Jilantai Salt Ponds (add the symbol for salt) mineral production areas; the cities of Lanzhou, Baotou, Hohhot, Erlianhot, Dunhuang, Wushenzhao; and the names and beginning and end points of the Lan-Xin, Long-Hai, Lan-Qing, Bao-Lan, Jing-Bao, Jing-Tong, Ji-Er, and Bin-Zhou railroads.

2 Analyse the pattern of distribution the Northern Interior's grassland grazing regions, desert regions, and irrigated agriculture regions, and their relationship to the climate.

3 Why has the Hexi Corridor been an important communications thoroughfare since ancient times?

4 Based on the "Northern Interior Annual Rainfall by district" chart on Page 82, analyse why the rainfall at Qilian at the southeastern end of the Qilian Mountain District is plentiful? And, on the other hand, why the rainfall at Jiuquan at the foot of Mt Qilian is very low?

5 Try to analyse the favourable conditions for Lanzhou's development into the main industrial city in the North-West, and Baotou's development into "The Steel City of the Grasslands".

6 From the Inner Mongolian Highlands to the Tarim Basin, analyse the effect of location on climate (this should be analysed horizontally). From the foot of Qilianshan to its summit, analyse the effect of relief on climate (this should be analysed vertically).

Translated from: Beijing Educational Institute Education Research Department, Beijing City Middle Schools Geography Revision Educational Reference Book, Beijing Publishing House, Beijing, 1984
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lesleyJune 27, 2008 at 7:00 PM
Chapter 13 Agriculture, forestry and livestock raising

Revision Requirements

1 Understand the development of production in and the differences between, China's three different types of agricultural region.
2 Understand and master the production of China's major crops, and an overview of their distribution.
3 Understand the pattern of distribution of China's forest vegetation, and master an overview of distribution of the three large forest regions and the major wind-break forests. Gain a preliminary understanding of the significance of forest conservation and of making China green.
4 Understand in overview the distribution of China's grasslands; master an overview of China's four great livestock raising regions and the well-known fine animal breeds.

Content Requirements

1 China's three different agricultural regions

i An agricultural country with a long history.
In world history of the development of agriculture, China is a country of long-standing. Over the long period of farming practice, the working people discovered and bred all sorts of different types and varieties of crops and commercial trees. Long ago, China was world-renowned for its abundance of natural silk, tea, paddy rice, raw lacquer, and tung oil. Today, China's annual production of cereals, cotton, soybeans, peanuts, rapeseed, flue-cured tobacco, silk, and tea, as well as the total number of head of livestock, all hold an important position in the world. However, China's population is very large, and the average amount of agricultural produce per capita is still quite small. The level of agricultural modernisation is also not high. It is necessary to further advance agricultural production, to achieve agricultural modernisation, and to satisfy the increasing requirements of the national economy and of the day to day lives of the people.

ii Overview of production in China's three different agricultural regions, and their differences.
a The east monsoon region: By far the greatest part of China's population and arable land is concentrated here; it is China's most important agricultural region. There are ample resources of light and heat, and in most of the region, moisture and heat conditions are quite well-matched. There is a very long history of cultivation, and it has become China's main cereal cropping and cash cropping region.

The regions to the north and south of the Qinling range-Huaihe river differ, in their water and heat conditions, their crop distributions, and their farming systems. (See the first section of Chapter 14 in the textbook, "The three different regions and their characteristics" for content.)

b The north-west interior region: This is the vast region to the north of the Daxing'anling range, Loess Plateau and Qilianshan-Kunlunshan mountains. The annual rainfall is less than evaporation, the climate is dry, and it is classified as a semi-arid and arid region. The croplands rely on irrigation; however, the grasslands are extensive and livestock farming is advanced. It is China's major pastoral region, and has large numbers of cattle and sheep. Almost all China's camels are produced in this region. The main cereal crops are spring wheat and food grains other than wheat and rice . There are commercial crops: long-staple cotton, sugar beet, linseed, melons and fruit.

c The Qinghai-Tibet plateau region: The terrain is high, the quantity of heat is low, and the growing season is short. It is characterised by high altitude-cold climate crop and livestock farming. The pastoral area is extensive. Arable land is mainly found at relatively low altitudes in the Yaluzangbu River valley, the Qaidam Basin, the Huangshui river valley, and river valley belts in the Hengduan Mountain Region. There is a special cereal crop, highland barley (qingke), here, and a special farm animal, the yak. Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Qinghai and Tibet, are known as China's four great livestock raising regions.

2 Major crops and their distribution

i Cereal crops
China's major cereal crops are paddy rice, wheat, and food grains other than wheat and rice . South of Qinling-Huaihe, paddy fields predominate, and paddy rice is widely grown. North of Qinling-Huaihe, dryland farming predominates, and a lot of wheat is grown. South of the Great Wall it is winter wheat, and north of the Great Wall it is spring wheat. Taking the country as a whole, the conditions and foundation for farming production are relatively good in the following regions, and they are China's major cereal producing areas: the Huabei Plain, the Wei River Plain, the Huai River Plain, the Yangtse River Delta, the Poyang Lake Plain, the Jianghan Plain, the Chengdu Plain, the Songnen Plain, the Sanjiang Plain, and the Pearl River Delta. Some of these are also important commodity cereals production bases.

ii Cotton
Cotton is distributed really quite extensively: the Yellow River valley and the Yangtse River valley are China's two most important large cotton-growing regions. There are five large stretches of land which are the major commercial cotton-production bases: the Jianghan Plain, the plains of the Yangtse Lower Reaches bordering the sea and along the Yangtse, the Ji Zhongnan, Lu Xibei and Yu Bei plains , the Huanghuai Plain, and Nan Jiang . Shandong, Jiangsu, Hubei, Hebei, Henan, Shaanxi, and Shanxi are China's major cotton-producing provinces.

iii Pulses and oilseed crops.
The soyabean is the most important of the pulses, and the three provinces of the North-east are the main production area. China's major oilseed crops are peanuts, rapeseed, sesame seed and linseed. The peanut is of first importance nationally. It is widely grown throughout the country, but is mainly distributed in the warm temperate, semi-tropical and tropical zones, in the East, south of Liaoning Province, with quite a lot grown in Shandong, Hebei, Henan and Jiangsu. Oilseed rape is the oilseed crop which has the greatest area in production, and is distributed the most widely. It is mainly found in South China, in Sichuan and Jiangsu. Sesame seed is grown in the greatest amounts in Henan. Linseed is mainly grown in Inner Mongolia and Ningxia.

iv Sugar crops
Sugarcane and sugarbeet are China's major sugar crops. Sugarcane is mainly grown in relatively high temperature, nightsoil-fertilised, high rainfall South. The Pearl River Delta, Sichuan Basin, and West Taiwan Plain are the main production areas for sugarcane. On the other hand, sugarbeet is distributed in the cool-temperate, long day-length North. The major production areas are Heilongjiang, Jilin and Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang.

v Subtropical and tropical zone commodity crops
The major subtropical commodity crops are tea, tung oil and lacquer tree. The major production areas for tea are Zhejiang, Hunan and Anhui. Tung oil is mainly produced in Guizhou, Sichuan, Hunan and Jiangxi. Lacquer trees are mainly grown in Sichuan and Guizhou. The major silkworm producing areas are Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Sichuan and Guangdong.

The main tropical commodity crops are rubber, oil palm and sisal hemp, which are distributed in the south of Guangdong, Guangxi and Yunnan, and in Taiwan.

3 Forest resources and major forest regions

i Abundant and varied forests, trees and commercial plantations.
China's natural conditions are many and varied. The differing heat and moisture conditions, on top of the extensive area of mountains, mean that not only is the area in China suited to forests very large, but the types of forests and varieties of trees are many and varied. Considering types of forests, in China's East monsoon region, sequentially from south to north can be found tropical rainforest and monsoon forest, subtropical evergreen forest, temperate deciduous broadleaf forest, and cold temperate coniferous forest. From the point of view of tree varieties, China has around 2,800 tree varieties, including some which are unique in the world, such as the "living fossils" the dawn redwood and the ginkgo. Apart from this, China also has many types of commercial plantations of fruit trees, tea, and food and oil-bearing woody plants.

ii China is classified as a country with few forests.
China's area of forest is small, the proportion of forest cover is low, and it is classified as a country with few forests. The area of forest stands at only 12.7% of the total area, and damage to the forest resource is serious.

iii The three great forest regions.
a The North-east's Da and Xiaoxing'anling (Greater and Lesser Xing'an) ranges and the Changbaishan mountains, are China's largest region of natural forest. Over one third of the country's total timber reserves are concentrated here.
b The South-west's Hengduanshan mountains and the southern slopes of the Himalayas are also an important natural forest region. The timber reserves here stand at more than one quarter of the total for the country.
c The mountains in the south-east of Fujian, Taiwan and Jiangxi provinces also have quite a lot of forest; however, the proportion of man-made forest and second-growth forest is quite high.

iv The distribution of major wind-break forests.
After Liberation, the main regions of China for the planting of wind-break forests were the west of the Dongbei Plain, the south of the Huabei Plain, the North-west's and Inner Mongolia's sandstorm regions, and the coastal belts of Guangdong and Jiangsu provinces. Now, the state has decided to plant a green "Great Wall" in Xibei (the North-west), the north of Huabei, and the west of Dongbei (the North-east), namely the "Three Norths" wind-break forest network.

4 Grasslands and livestock farming
i Grasslands
In China, mainly following along the northwest side of the line of Daxing'anling - Yinshan - Lüliangshan - Hengduanshan, there is a large area of natural grasslands. Of them, the most important are the Interior temperate grasslands, and the Qinghai-Tibet high altitude-cold climate grasslands.

ii The four great pastoral farming areas
a In Inner Mongolia, the Hulunbei'er Banner and the Xilin'guole Banner are fine natural pasturelands. Hu Banner's Sanhe horses and Sanhe cattle, and the Xi Banner's Mongolian horses and fine-wool sheep are all very well-known.
b In Xinjiang, the southern slopes of the Altai Mountains and the Yili River valley have the well-known Yili horses and fine-wool sheep.
c The Qinghai and Tibet pastoral region is mainly distributed in strips on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, beside lakes, in the valleys between mountains, and on gentle slopes facing into the sun. It has the famous yak and Tibetan sheep, and the Hequ horse.

Revision Methods

1 When revising the China's three types of agricultural region question, it needs to be linked in with the distribution of China's major climate types. The eastern monsoon region is mainly in China's east, close to the sea, markedly affected by the sea, with a relatively high rainfall, level topography, suited to agriculture; by far the largest proportion of the whole country's population and cultivable land is here, and it is China's main agricultural region. The North-west Interior is far from the sea, the climate is arid and strongly continental; it is China's important livestock farming area, and irrigated agriculture is quite important. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has a high steep topography, the high altitude-cold climate holds an important position; the cultivable land is mostly in basins and river valley strips, and livestock farming likewise predominates.

2 China has many types of agricultural crops, and the regions they are distributed over are extensive. To remember so much knowledge, you first have to think about the farming of the crops and link it very closely with the factors of topography, climate, soils, hydrology, and human activities. In this way, when recalling the growing of a certain crop and its distribution, you just need to link it back to those factors. Secondly, you need to look at the relevant diagrams in the textbook as well when doing your revision, for example "Paddy rice distribution map", "Sketch map of pastoral areas showing the distribution of fine animal breeds", "Sketch map of the distribution of China's forests". Thirdly, you can use the dispersed memorisation technique, memorising several at one time, revising them once more two days later, and memorising several more. This is helpful in ensuring you won't forget. In short, when revising, you need to read the book, look at the diagrams and reflect at the same time. For example, when revising the content of the Yangtse River Delta is China's major agricultural production region, first find the Yangtse River Delta on the map, and ponder why it has become China's major agricultural region. What cereal and cash crops does it have? What industrial and mining areas have they supported the development of? You can ask and answer the questions yourself, or you can work with a schoolmate and test each other. Lastly, compare yourself against the supplementary revision questions in the teaching materials. This type of revision process will be beneficial to recall. The above method is also suitable for revising forestry and livestock farming.

3 When revising the forest resources and major forest regions question, you need to grasp very firmly that the types of forest are plentiful but the number of forests is quite small, and the distribution of the three great forest regions, these two main points. In Part 2 of the China Geography textbook, it talks about the usefulness of forests in protecting the environment, and the significance of wind-break forests. The relevant tasks in Section 4 of this book will revise this content, so we can omit it here.

Reflection and Exercises.

1 Explain what the conditions were for the Songnen Plain and the Chengdu Plain to become major cereal production regions in China. What are the main crops?

2 What are the differences in water and heat conditions, crop distribution and farming systems north and south of the Qinling-Huaihe divide? Why?

3 Briefly describe the distribution of China's rice, wheat, cotton, soybeans, peanuts, sesame, oilseed rape, linseed, sugarcane and sugarbeet, and their relationship to climate.

4 Analyse the characteristics of the distribution of China's forests. Comparing and contrasting with the map, indicate China's three major forest regions, and the important tree types.

5 Where are China's major livestock farming regions? Give an explanation, region by region, of each region's fine animal breeds.

Translated from: Beijing Educational Institute Education Research Department, Beijing City Middle Schools Geography Revision Educational Reference Book, Beijing Publishing House, Beijing, 1984
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lesleyJune 27, 2008 at 7:02 PM
Chapter 14 Minerals and Industry

Revision Requirements

1 Understand that China has plentiful mineral resources. Coal, iron, oil and many types of nonferrous metal ores occupy a major position in the world.

2 Master the distribution of China's major iron ore mines, nonferrous metals mines, coal mines and oilfields, and understand the general laws of their distribution.

3 Understand that after Liberation in China, industrial construction made great progress, and there was an enormous change in its overall arrangement.

4 Understand the features of the overall arrangement of China's industry, and the distribution of the major industrial cities.

Essential Content Points

1 Plentiful metal ores of many types
i China has a complete range of mineral resources, and its reserves are plentiful.
China's geological conditions are complex, the mineral resources are plentiful, and of the world's 150 types of known useful minerals, China has all of them.

There are 140 types of proven mineral reserves, and among them, those whose reserves hold first place in the world are: tungsten, antimony, tin , molybdenum, zinc, vanadium, titanium, rare earths, iron pyrites , and magnesite. The coal, copper, lead, iron, mercury, nickel, phosphate and asbestos reserves also stand in the front rank in the world.
ii Iron ore resources and large-scale iron ore mines.
China's iron ore resources are plentiful and widespread. However, most of them are lean iron ores containing about 30% iron; there are not many high-grade ores.

China's large-scale iron ore mines are: Liaoning's Anshan and Benxi, Hebei's Qian'an and Cishan, Anhui's Ma'anshan, Hubei's Daye, Inner Mongolia's Baiyin Ebo, Guangdong's Hainan (high-grade ore), Sichuan's Panzhihua and Qijiang. In the past few years, large-scale iron ore deposits have also been discovered in Anhui's Lujiang area, along the banks of West Yunnan's Lancangjiang river, and in East Tibet.

iii Nonferrous metal ores
China has plentiful nonferrous metal ores of many different types; they are widespread. Among them the known reserves of tungsten, antimony, zinc, copper, tin molybdenum, mercury and nickel stand in the first rank in the world.

The distribution of most of China's nonferrous metal ores is closely related to magmatic rock. In China's South-east magmatic rock is distributed widely, there are many types of nonferrous metals, and the reserves are large, for example Nanling. In the west, the mountain regions of Tianshan, Qilianshan and Hengduanshan all also contain plentiful nonferrous metal ores.

The distribution and production areas for a number of China's major nonferrous metal ores are:

1 Copper ore: Mainly found in north Jiangxi's Dexing, East Hubei's Daye, north Yunnan's Dongchuan, south Anhui's Tongling, and north Gansu's Jinchuan areas.
2 Tungsten ore: Nanling is where tungsten is concentrated, and south Jiangxi's Dayu is a well-known mining region.
3 Antimony ore: Distributed at Hunan's Lengshuijiang.
4 Lead and zinc ore: Mainly distributed in Hunan's Shuikoushan, Yunnan's Lanping, and Qinghai's Qaidam Basin's Xitieshan areas.
5 Tin ore: Distributed at Yunnan's Gejiu.
6 Mercury ore: Mainly found at Guizhou's Tongren.
7 Nickel ore: Gansu's Jinchuan is China's largest nickel producing region.

iv Plentiful rare earth ores and the three large multiple metal intergrowth mines
China is the country of the world most rich in rare earth ores; rare earth ore reserves stand at more than 90% of the world's total reserves. The reserves at Inner Mongolia's Baiyun Ebo iron and rare earths mine are the richest. It, together with Panzhihua's vanadium titanium magnetite mine, and Jinchuan's copper and nickel sulphide mine, make up China's three large metal intergrowth mines.

2 Coal resources and coal bases
i Plentiful coal resources
China's coal resources are plentiful, proved reserves standing in the front rank in the world. However, the distribution of the coal is unbalanced; there is a lot in North China (Huabei's reserves stand at more than 60%), and not much in South China. Not only are the "Coal Sea" Shanxi Province's reserves one third of the whole country's, but they have these features: the coal is of good quality, the coal beds are thick, and it is buried shallowly.

In remote antiquity, North China was once a vast marshland the surface of which was completely covered with dense forest. Later on the forest was buried by silt, and after passing through long geological ages, it turned into a coalfield, widespread and with large reserves.

ii Major coal bases
At present, China's large coal mines with annual production greater than 10 million tonnes are Heilongjiang's Jixi and Hegang, Liaoning's Fushun and Fuxin, Hebei's Kailuan and Fengfeng, Shanxi's Datong and Yangquan, Henan's Pingdingshan, Anhui's Huaibei and Huainan, and Jiangsu's Xuzhou. Apart from these, West Guizhou's Liupanshui, Sichuan's Baoding, Hunan's Pingxiang, Shandong's Yanzhou and Zaozhuang, and the coal mines at the north and south foot of Tianshan, are also very important. Between the Sixth Five Year Plan and the Seventh Five Year Plan, China will construct five new large-scale open-cast coal mines. They are the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region's Huolinhe, Yiminhe, Yuanbaoshan, and Zhunga'er, and Shanxi's Pingshuo. And another group of coal mines will also be expanded, to make them into national coal bases.

3 Oil and natural gas
i China's oil resources and distribution of the major oil fields
Many of China's subsidence zones have good sedimentary rock conditions, and it is possible to find oil resources. Since Liberation, China has found large oil fields, one after another, in the subsidence zones of the Dongbei Plains, the Huabei Plains and the Jianghan Plains.

China's land-based oil fields are mainly concentrated north of the Yangtse River. In the North-East region, there is Daqing (in Heilongjiang Province), Fuyu (in Jilin Province), and Liaohe (in Liaoning Province). In the Huabei Region, there is Huabei (which includes Dagang and Hebei Province's Renqiu), Shengli (in Shandong Province), and Zhongyuan (originally called Dongpu, it straddles the two provinces of Henan and Shandong). In the Zhongnan Region, there is Nanyang (in Henan Province). In the North-West region, there is Yumen (in Gansu Province), Lenghu (in Qinghai Province), Kelamayi and Nanjiang (in Xinjiang), and Yanchang (in Shaanxi Province. The marine continental shelf oil fields are distributed in the waters of Bohai, the south of the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea and the South China Sea.

ii Oil shale and natural gas
Oil shale is found in Fushun (Liaoning) and Maoming (Guangdong). The natural gas at Zigong in Sichuan is the most well-known.

4 Industry and its distribution
i Development of and changes in China's industry
Pre-Liberation, the level of China's industrial production was very low, the sectors were weak and incomplete, the overall arrangement of industry was extremely irrational, and it was classed as semi-colonial industry.

After Liberation, industry made great progress, and the overall arrangement of industry was greatly changed. The original industry along the coast was rebuilt and expanded, and gave energetic support to the interior. Under conditions where local resources were fully utilised, newly arisen industries in the interior and minority nationalities regions developed very quickly. The industrial sectors became more comprehensive by the day, and the level of industrial technology was continually raised. The whole country now already has a quite complete industrial setup.

ii Major industrial bases and industrial cities
China's six great regions, the North-East, Huabei, Huadong, Zhongnan, the South-West and the North-West, have all set up certain bases of relatively concentrated industry, as well as a lot of dispersed industrial enterprises. (With regard to the major industrial bases and industrial cities of the six great regions, as well as the changes to the general arrangement of industry, please see pages 128-131 of Part 2 of the Chinese Geography textbook, and the relevant content in Chapter 9 of Part 2 of Senior Middle School Geography for detail).

Revision Methods

1 You need to make ample use of the textbook and the atlas. For all the mineral resource distribution knowledge, you need to refer to the three mineral distribution sketch maps on pages 117, 120 and 122 of the textbook, and check off each item one by one, linking them as much as possible with the mining regions and sites already studied in the separate regions. For example when revising the distribution of coal resources, it is best to use the fill in the blanks map of China's administrative regions, and starting from the North-East three provinces, recall them province (region) by province, remembering and filling in the blanks at the same time, and you can draw conclusions about the features of China's coal distribution and the distribution of the famous large mines at the same time. Then check them off again against the China coal distribution sketch map in Part 2 of the text.

China has many types of nonferrous metals. When you are revising, you first need to recall easily China's major nonferrous metal ores and remember clearly their legend (or key). Then item by mining district or site, mark them on a blank map of the whole country. Lastly, by comparing with a relief map, work out the rules of distribution of China's nonferrous metals.

2 When revising China's industry, you need to take note of the content, because this part of the content is mostly knowledge which has already been studied. However, regional geography is mainly about mastering the geographical features of each region, whereas this section is based on the basis of recombining the six large regions. The main thing it does is to explain the already quite comprehensive national industrial system. Each of the large regions has, according to its own specific conditions, set up certain quite concentrated bases, as well as many decentralised industrial enterprises.

When revising, you need to note the following:
Firstly, on the map, first make clear the scope of each of the great regions and what provinces (cities, regions) they include, taking care not to mix them up with the preceding regional geography regions.
Secondly, making full use of the illustrations on page 129 of Part 2 of the textbook, and using a China administrative regions fill in the blanks map, taking the regions as the unit of reference, review and fill in the map at the same time.
Thirdly, when revising, you need to tightly link in the old knowledge, and from each of the great region's economic development and favourable and unfavourable conditions, their major industrial sectors, and their major industrial bases and major industrial cities, form associations. Moreover, combine it with the relevant content from Senior Middle School Geography and revise.
Fourthly, on the fill in the gaps map you also need to mark in the main trunk railroads which link these major cities, and recognise the important function of communications and transport in developing the economy. Have an overall understanding that, in China's economy from the coast to the interior, there is a mutually supportive relationship between each region, and from this gain a fairly complete conception of it as an organic entity.
Fifthly, for revision of the industrial sectors and their distribution, you should normally discuss the development and distribution of heavy industry together with mineral resources, and the development and distribution of light industry with agricultural and forestry resources.

These industries are closely interrelated with communications and transportation. When revising you should link them to communications.

In the memorisation of the distribution of industry, you need to take note of the rows and squares relationship . If you take the industrial sectors as rows, and the provinces and regions (six great regions) as squares, then when you are taking the rows as primary, you still have to consciously remember their distribution by order of area. For example the coal bases. First you can start with Huabei with its large reserves, (Kailuan, Fengfeng, Datong, Yangquan), and then continue, explaining in proper order from the North-East region south each region's coal bases and distribution. In this way, the mastery of industrial distribution by category will be facilitated.

For Thought and Practice

1 The features of China's mineral resources are abundance and variety. Explain.
2 Contrast and explain China's industrial development and change before and after Liberation.
3 On a fill in the blanks administrative regions map of China, use symbols to denote: large coal mines with annual production exceeding 10 million tonnes, major oil fields, and important large iron ore mines. On another China fill in the blanks map denote (using symbols): major copper mines, lead and zinc mines, antimony mines, tungsten mines, mercury mines, tin mines, nickel mines and the largest rare earths mine; Qilianshan, Tianshan, Hengduanshan, Nanling.
4 On a China's adminstrative regions fill in the blanks map, draw an outline of the scope of the six great regions, and fill out: each region's major industrial bases, as well as Jinchuan, Lanzhou, Liupanshui, Lenghu, Shizuishan, Tongchuan, Wuxi, Qinhuangdao, Changdu.
5 Analyse the favourable conditions of the several iron and steel industry bases along the Yangtse River mainstream, from the aspects of natural resources, energy, and communications.
6 Fill out the following table of the major industrial sectors and major industrial cities for the six great regions .

Sector Dongbei Huabei Xibei Huadong Zhongnan Xi'nan Important cities
Iron and Steel Industry
Machinery industry

Textiles industry

Chemicals industry

Electric power industry
Coal and oil industry

Translated from: Beijing Educational Institute Education Research Department, Beijing City Middle Schools Geography Revision Educational Reference Book, Beijing Publishing House, Beijing, 1984
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lesleyJune 27, 2008 at 7:03 PM
Chapter 16 The seas and oceans, and marine enterprise

Revision requirements

1 Understand the natural features of China's neighbouring seas, and master the distribution of China's main fishing grounds and saltworks.
2 Understand that the plentiful marine resources of China's neighbouring seas are China's giant natural treasure-house, and that they offer favourable conditions for the development of marine enterprises and for achieving strengthening of the Four Modernisations.

Main content points

1 China's neighbouring seas
i China's offshore waters and continental sea
The seas and oceans which mainland China borders on are the Bohai, Yellow Sea, East China Sea and South China Sea. They are all continental fringe seas in the western part of the North Pacific Ocean, and among them, Bohai is China's continental sea. The east coast of China's Taiwan Island borders directly onto the Pacific Ocean.
ii The natural features of China's offshore waters.
The seas are all found at different latitudes, the degree to which they are influenced by the mainland differ, and they all differ from each other in their natural features. In general terms, Bohai and the Yellow Sea, as well as the continental shelf parts of the East China Sea and the South China Sea are classified as temperate and subtropical shallow sea; the topography of the seabed, hydrology, and climate are influenced by the mainland to quite a large extent. Most of the South China Sea and part of the East China Sea, as well as the seas to the east of Taiwan, on the other hand, are tropical and subtropical deep sea; so the temperature of the surface layer of seawater is relatively high, and the salt content is quite great.

Comparative table of area, depth, water temperature, and salinity of each sea
Name Area
(sq km) Average
depth (m) Water temperature conditions
(Average annual water temperature) Salinity
(0/00) Other features
Bohai 77,000 18 11° 31 Enclosed continental sea, in winter it is partially frozen. The seabed is continental shelf.
Yellow Sea 380,000 44 14-19° 32 Semi-enclosed shallow sea; the water is yellow-coloured. The seabed is continental shelf.
East China Sea 770,000 370 20-24° 33 The continental shelf is extensive; many islands
South China Sea 3,500,000 1,212 25-38° 35 Tropical and subtropical deep sea; coral polyps grow there.

2 Major fishing grounds and plentiful marine aquatic products
i Favourable conditions for developing the marine fisheries
The favourable conditions of China's offshore (or inshore) waters for the development of the fisheries and aquaculture are:
a The seas at the edges of the Chinese mainland are broad shallow sea areas, ample sunlight can reach the sea floor, which is favourable for the reproduction and growth of marine organisms.
b The seas at the edges of the Chinese mainland are close to the mainland, and the dryland rivers carry a lot of organic matter and nutritious salts. This is favourable to the growth of large quantities of plankton, which provides ample feed for marine fish.
c China's offshore seas not only have northward warm currents but also have southward coastal currents (cold sea currents). The place where the two types of current meet and converge is very often a good place for the fish to migrate to for spawning, and is an important fishing zone.

ii Major fishing grounds
China's seas are broad, and there are many offshore fishing grounds. The East China Sea is popularly known as the "Natural Fish Store". The major fishing grounds are the Zhoushan Fishing Grounds and the Bohai Gulf Fishing Grounds.

iii Major fish and aquatic products
China's offshore seas have almost 200 types of commercial fish, by far the most being warm-water fish. The major ones are hairtail, little yellow croaker, chub mackerel, prawns, and cuttlefish. Apart from this, on the mudflats of the offshore seas, large-scale marine aquaculture can be developed, the cultivation of kelp, laver (Porphyra spp.), prawns, mussels, oysters, and pearl oysters.

3 Major saltworks
i Favourable conditions for the development of marine salt production
China's coastline is very long, and has many clay beaches suitable for evaporating brine to make salt. In China's Huabei and Dongbei regions, the rainy season is short, there are many fine days and evaporation is vigorous, so that salt production is mostly found along the Bohai and Yellow Sea coasts. In low latitudes, in zones in the lee of the wind there are not many dull and rainy days and evaporation is vigorous; they are also good places for marine salt production from brine.
ii Major saltworks
China's volume of marine salt production is first in the world. The major saltworks are the Bohai Gulf's Changlu Saltworks, Hainan Island's Yinggehai Saltworks in South China, and Taiwan Province's Budai Saltworks.

4 Speed up the development of China's marine enterprise
i China's marine resources are plentiful; their opening up and utilisation value is very great.
a Exploit the seabed mineral resources: We are now exploiting the offshore continental shelf oilfields.
b Open up and utilise the marine energy resources: China's coastal tidal energy could generate 270,000 million kilowatt-hours of electricity per year, however, up to the present time it has not been utilised very well.
c Devote major efforts to opening up the biological resources: China's offshore seas not only require major efforts to be devoted to fishing, but also require active raising of the proportion of fish breeding. At present, China's artificial fish breeding industry is continually developing, and artificial hatching and raising of prawns and redeye mullet has been successful.
d Recover the chemical resources: the seas and oceans are a treasure-house of chemical resources. China produces a lot of salt, which can be used as a raw material for the chemicals industry and undergo multipurpose use. Sea water contains a lot of potassium, and the experimental work for extracting potassium from sea water has already been successful. This has opened up a new avenue for potassium fertiliser production to meet the needs of China's agricultural development.
ii Devote major efforts to developing marine transportation
The development of marine transportation can be divided into two types, coastal shipping and ocean-going shipping. Coastal shipping means transportation between the ports along China's coast; this already has several tens of thousands of nautical miles of navigation lines. Ocean-going shipping means marine transportation between China and the other countries and regions of the world. China's ocean-going fleet has grown rapidly. More and more goods and materials are being traded with foreign countries; China already has its own steamer transportation connecting to all the various countries of the world.
iii Actively develop marine scientific research, and protect the ocean environment
In order go further in developing and utilising the sea and ocean, opening up the outer sea fishing grounds and developing ocean-going fishing, it will be necessary to make a good job of a programme of research work. At the same time, ocean environment protection work will also need to be completed, to prevent oil pollution.

Revision Methods

1 When revising the marine resources, you need to utilise the relevant seas and oceans knowledge that has been studied previously, and revise it together with the content in this section. In this way, it will be quite easily understood and mastered.
2 As far as the analysis of the basic situation of China's offshore seas is concerned, you can adopt the contrastive method to do your revision. You can put the area, depth, water temperature, salinity, and the other features of the four seas into a table to contrast them, and to deepen understanding of the natural conditions of the four seas. There are some questions for which you can use the China relief map and link in to the learning on the relief and climate, to analyse and explain several of the general characteristics of the sea and ocean. This type of revision method, combination of the relevant knowledge and tabulated contrastive analysis, is quite effective.
3 When revising the main fishing grounds and marine aquatic products section, you need to first understand the favourable conditions for the development of aquatic production, and only then analyse the formation and distribution of the offshore fishing grounds (read and analyse the maps on pages 133 and 135 of the textbook).

For example, when mastering the major saltworks, you need to compare with the relief map, link the features of relief and climate, and analyse the favourable coditions for coastal brine evaporation. Then, remembering the distribution of the major saltworks will be quite easy.

4 With regard to devoting major efforts to develop the marine enterprise, you need to be clear about its major significance, and understand its prospects. You have to fully recognise that China has rich marine resources, that major efforts to develop the marine enterprise and the research work into marine science have only just begun, and that there is still a lot of work which needs to be done. When revising, you need to link it in with China's economic construction and development of the marine enterprise, to strengthen comprehension.

For Reflection and Practice

1 Tabulate and explain the natural features of China's four off-shore seas.
2 What major marine aquatic resources do China's off-shore seas have? Show the distribution of the important fishing grounds on a map.
3 Explain the distribution of China's major salt works, as well as the favourable conditions for the formation of salt works.
4 What major marine resources does China have? State in simple terms what the major significance of opening up and utilising the marine resources is.

Translated from: Beijing Educational Institute Education Research Department, Beijing City Middle Schools Geography Revision Educational Reference Book, Beijing Publishing House, Beijing, 1984
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lesleyJune 27, 2008 at 7:05 PM
Part 4 Man and the Geographic Environment

The Man and the Geographic Environment Part has been compiled taking the content of Upper Middle Schools' Geography Second Part (Second Edition) Chapters 6 to 11 as principal, supplemented by reference to the relevant content on Man and the Geographic Environment in the China Geography and World Geography textbooks. The primary emphasis in this part is the clarification from the theoretical perspective of the man and geographical environment relationship, and the pointing out of major environmental issues in today's world, as well as of the fundamental ways of resolving these issues. It is based on giving an account of regional geographic knowledge. By so doing, it makes the earlier previously studied geographic knowledge more systematic and complete. When revising this part of the learning, the following issues should be noted:

1 When reviewing the Man and the Geographic Environment Relationship question, you should first of all get a clear understanding of the concept of the geographic environment as a whole. When revising the natural zone questions in the Basic Knowledge and World Geography Parts, we have already touched on the concept of the geographic environment. So when reviewing the content of this part, those previously-studied concepts should be taken to a deeper level, and it should be made evident that the geographic environment includes both the natural environment and the man-made modified environment. With this as the foundation, then go on to further your understanding of the man and geographic environment relationship.
2 Through reviewing the question of the man and geographic environment relationship, you should progressively acquire a scientific, dialectical materialist natural resource view, population view, and environment view. You should genuinely grasp the importance of harmonising the relationship between mankind's development and the environment, and grasp the scientific principles and fundamental ways to control population growth, to rationally use and conserve natural resources, as well as to protect the environment.
3 When reviewing the question of the man and geographical environment relationship, you need to take care to link it in to the regional geographic knowledge studied earlier in China Geography and World Geography. You need to choose representative examples from this knowledge to illustrate the theory of the man and geographic environment relationship. In particular, you should take care to link in to the actuality of Beijing and the local district of the school to set forth the man and geographic environment relationship theories. This will deepen your comprehension of the basic viewpoints.

Chapter 1 Natural resources and their conservation
Chapter 2 Energy resources and their utilisation
Chapter 3 Agricultural production and the grain issue
Chapter 4 Industrial production and the distribution of industry
Chapter 5 Population and cities
Chapter 6 Mankind and the environment

Translated from: Beijing Educational Institute Education Research Department, Beijing City Middle Schools Geography Revision Educational Reference Book, Beijing Publishing House, Beijing, 1984
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lesleyJune 27, 2008 at 7:09 PM
Beijing Educational Institute, Educational Research Department, Beijing City Middle Schools' History Revision - Teaching Reference Book, Beijing Publishing House, Beijing, 1983

Table of Contents

Chinese History
Primitive society
1 Our country's primitive peoples
2 Clan communes
Slave society
1 The formation and development of slave society - Xia, Shang
2 The powerful and prosperous slave state - Western Zhou
3 The fall of slave society - Spring and Autumn period
Feudal society
The formation and early development of the feudal society - Warring States, Qin, Han
1 The period of formation - the Warring States
2 The unification under Qin, and the late Qin Peasant War
3 The powerful and prosperous Western Han
4 The rule of Eastern Han and the rebellion of the Yellow Turbans
5 The culture of the Qin and Han period
The break-up of the feudal state and the great mixing of nationalities - Three Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties
1 Three Kingdoms and Western and Eastern Jin
2 Southern and Northern Dynasties
3 The culture of the Three Kingdoms, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties
period
The flourishing of feudal society - Sui, Tang
1 The unification under Sui, and the late Sui Peasant Wars
2 The prosperity of early Tang
3 The decline of Tang, and the late Tang Peasant War
4 The culture of the Sui and Tang period
Further strengthening of the fusion of nationalities and continued development of the feudal economy - Five Dynasties, Liao, Song, Xia, Jin, Yuan
1 The relationship between the Northern Song, Liao, Xia, and Jin
2 The confrontation between Southern Song and Jin
3 Yuan rule
4 The culture of the Song and Yuan period
The consolidation of a unified multi-nation state and the gradual decline of the feudal system - Ming, Qing (before the Opium War)
1 The politics, economics and foreign relations of the Ming Dynasty
2 The Peasant War of late Ming, and the entry of the Qing armies
3 Early Qing rule
4 Ming and Qing culture

The semi-colonial semi-feudal society - part one
The Opium War and the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom movement
1 The Opium War
2 The Taiping Heavenly King movement
3 The Nian Army and the minority nationalities' revolt
The birth of Chinese capitalism and the Sino-Japanese War
1 The birth of Chinese capitalism
2 The new crisis in the China border regions and the Sino-French War
3 The Sino-Japanese War, and the mad rush of the imperialists to carve up
China
The Reform Movement of 1898 and the Boxer Movement
1 The Reform Movement of 1898
2 The Boxer Movement
The Revolution of 1911
1 The Revolution of 1911
2 Opposition to the secret rule of the Northern Warlords
3 The further development of Chinese capitalism and the situation of the
proletariat
Modern Chinese culture and science
1 Ideas and literature
2 Science and technology and the rise of the New Culture Movement
The semi-colonial semi-feudal society - part 2
The Founding of the Chinese Communist Party and the First Revolutionary Civil War
1 The "May 4th" Patriotic Movement - the beginning of China's New
Democratic Revolution
2 The setting up of the Chinese Communist Party
3 The first upsurge of the Chinese Workers' Movement
4 The formation of a united revolutionary front
5 The rapid development of the nation-wide Workers' and Peasants' Movement,
and the consolidation of the Guangdong revolutionary base
6 The Northern Expedition and the Shanghai Workers' Armed Uprising
7 The Guomindang rightists betray the revolution
The Second Revolutionary Civil War
1 The formation of Chinese red power
2 The struggle of the Chinese people against the Japanese imperialist invasion
3 The Long March of the Chinese workers, peasants and red soldiers
4 The early formation of the Chinese Communist Party-led national united front
against the Japanese
The War of Resistance against Japan
1 The beginning of the nation-wide War of Resistance against Japan
2 The struggle of the Chinese Communist Party to support resistance and oppose
surrender
3 Victory in the War of Resistance against Japan
The Third Revolutionary Civil War
1 The Chinese Communist Party's struggle to strive for peaceful democracy and
to prepare for a war of self defence
2 The beginning of the People's War of Liberation
3 The development of the People's War of Liberation
4 Victory in the People's War of Liberation
5 The founding of the great People's Republic of China

World History

Ancient history
1 Primitive society
2 The ancient Asian and African slave states
3 The ancient Greek and Roman slave states
4 The formation and development of West European feudalism
5 Asian feudal states
6 Ancient Africa
7 Ancient America
8 The disintegration of West European feudalism and the rise of capitalism
Modern history
1 The British bourgeois revolution
2 Seventeenth and eighteenth century Russia
3 The West European states struggle to compete for colonial supremacy
4 The American War of Independence
5 The French Proletarian Revolution
6 The independence revolutions of South America
7 The British Industrial Revolution
8 The birth of scientific communism
9 The European revolution of 1848
10 The abolition of serfdom and Tsarist Russia's aggressive expansion
11 The American Civil War
12 The Asian storm of revolution
13 The Japanese Meiji Reforms
14 The First Internationale
15 The Paris Commune
16 Capitalism enters the imperialist stage
17 The national democratic movements of Asia, Africa and Latin America
18 The Second Internationale
19 The First World War
*Contemporary History
1 The Great October Revolution
2 The Imperialists' Versailles-Washington arrangement
3 Post-War world revolutionary movements and national liberation movements
4 Important capitalist countries after the War
5 The Soviet Union's socialist revolutionary and construction achievements
6 The economic and political crises in the capitalist world.
7 National liberation movements of the 1930s and the struggle against Fascism
8 Europe on the Eve of the Second World War
9 The Second World War
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lesleyJune 27, 2008 at 7:10 PM
Beijing Educational Institute, Educational Research Department, Beijing City Middle Schools' Upper Middle Schools' Political Studies Revision - Teaching Reference Book, Beijing Publishing House, Beijing, 1982

Table of Contents

Political Economy
*1 Learn a little about political economy
2 Goods, money and the law of value
3 Capital and surplus value
4 The production and economic crisis of capitalism
5 Imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism
6 The ownership of the means of production in the socialist society
7 The aim of socialist production and the means of achieving it
8 The socialist national economy has planned development which is balanced
9 The production and circulation of goods in the socialist economy
10 Socialist distribution of income

Dialectical materialism
1 The need for diligent study of dialectical materialism
2 Matter and consciousness
3 Material motion and its law
4 The universal relationships and development through change of the material
world
5 The universality and particularity of contradiction
6 Quantitative change and qualitative change
7 Dialectical negation and affirmation
8 Practice and theory
9 The dialectical process of understanding
10 In the midst of practice, test and develop the truth
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lesleyJune 28, 2008 at 2:55 AM
Chapter 3 Stories

1 Introducing several types of story
Stories can be used to tell an audience about something. There are true stories and fictional stories.

Below, several types of fictional stories are introduced.

(1) Folk stories
Folk stories are stories which are created directly by the mass of the people, and which are circulated orally amongst the people. Most of them sing the praises of the working people's virtuous aspects, hard work, courage, resourcefulness, kindheartedness, and expose, mock and castigate the ugly things, cruelty, selfishness, greed. They are infused with the people's thoughts and feelings, and reflect their ideals and aspirations. In the process of oral circulation, folk stories are continually being polished and perfected. Because of this they all have a strong ability to affect people, they are easy to tell, easy to listen to, easy to understand, and also easy to pass on.

(2) Fables, allegories, parables
Most fables are written by scholars. A fable illustrates a truth through a story, using the form of a story so that without being aware of it people receive inspiration and teaching. A fable is generally quite brief and the plot is quite simple, but it has a profound message.

(3) History stories
History stories are based on historical characters and incidents. In history there are many incidents and characters which make a person feel proud, and there are also absurd and cruel characters and incidents worth drawing lessons from. These two reverse aspects of characters and incidents are passed down from generation to generation, and are artistically polished. Some of them have the colouring of fantasy added to them, and others the rich visualisation of later generations, to become vivid, moving stories.

(4) Myths, fairy tales
Myths are stories which reflect the ancient people's primitive understanding of the origins of mankind and celestial bodies, and of natural phenomena and social life. Because the level of the productive forces in ancient times was low, people could not explain the origin of the world scientifically, nor the contradictions and changes in natural phenomena and social life . So they made use of visualisation and fantasy and personified natural forces, imagined forth all kinds of "supernatural beings", and through the words and actions of the supernatural beings, they showed man's struggle against the forces of nature and search for the ideal.

(5) Children's stories, fairy tales
Children's stories are for a child audience, and their content very often sings the praises of a fine spirit of hard work, courage, kindheartedness, friendly affection, and criticises odious habits and characteristics of wickedness, cruelty, greed, laziness. The images that people have portrayed by means of rich visualisation and exaggeration are mostly personified animals and plants, and natural phenomena. And by reflecting a certain life through their activities, children are inspired, taught and influenced. The plots are generally quite magical, and also quite easy to read and understand.

2 The characteristics of stories

(1) Continuous coherent story
Stories generally all have one thread which runs through them to the end, advancing gradually in due order according to the plot development, and making the entire cause and effect process clear, step by step. There are no complications and confusions, each detail and sentence is crystal clear, there are no veiled implications, no leaps, no separations, each link is fastened tightly to the next, there is a beginning and an end, the beginning and end link together, and it is a coherent whole.

(2) Complicated plot
Normally stories all have a complicated story line with rises and falls and twists and turns. The use of methods, such as coincidences, misunderstandings, suspense, and battles of wits and courage between the protagonists, gives impetus to the progress of the plot's twists and turns and makes it difficult for people to make predictions. The telling of a story is also infused with the creator's strong feelings of love and loathing, and the descriptions are very often vivid, lively images. For this reason, stories very often have strong appeal and affective power.

(3) The language is spoken language
Stories are circulated orally; people use their mouths to speak and their ears to listen, and what they use is pure spoken language. The words and expressions, the sentence patterns, and the tone all have distinctive spoken language characteristics. For example, literary words and expressions are not used, cognates are used sparingly, the sentences are short, it is popular, visual and witty. This spoken language has undergone a process of progressive polishing and does not imitate everyday oral language indiscriminately, so the language of a story is as clear as speech, when it is told it reads smoothly, and when it is listened to it is easily understood.

(4) The phenomenon of detail and sentence reappearance
Generally narratives all avoid repetition as far as possible, but in stories certain details or sentences very often appear repeatedly. The reasons for this are: firstly, the plot development process requires coordination in order to preserve the story's coherence. Secondly, if the key details which run through the whole story appear repeatedly, it can deepen the impression on the listener. Thirdly, due to the language's not laying stress on ornamentation, it is unnecessary to make changes, and when the plot development requires the expression of a sentence with the same meaning as earlier on, very often the earlier sentence will be repeated. Fourthly, it strengthens the narrator's tone.

3 Composition requirements
When you are practicing writing stories, it is not necessary to create and compose them yourself. Rather, you need to use Chinese to narrate a certain story which is circulated orally. When you are recording and narrating it, the sequence of ideas needs to be clear, the plot needs to be explained clearly, the original appearance needs to be preserved as much as possible, and in particular, attention needs to be paid to the characteristics and style of the language. Do not mix in personal comments and explanations.

Translated from Zhu Bing Yao ed., Composition Guide for Foreign Students of Chinese, Sinolingua, Beijing, 1997
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lesleyJune 28, 2008 at 2:56 AM
Chapter 4 Narratives about events

Overview

1 What is a narrative describing an event
A narrative describing an event is a narrative which takes the narration of the occurrence, development and outcome of an event as its primary content. Through depiction of the details of the characters and incidents in the development process of the event, it reveals a particular central idea.

2 The basic requirements of narrative writing

i The event must be complete, and the explanation must be clear
When something occurs, it is always at a certain time and in a certain place. It has its cause and effect, and its course. When giving an account of something that has happened it must be according to that thing's original appearance. The time, place and course of its occurrence, as well as the relationships between characters and so on, must all be explained clearly. Only in this way will the event be complete, and the sequence of ideas be clear.

ii The central idea needs to stand out
The central idea is the basic view which the writer expresses through the account of an incident. It is the point of departure for the choice of material and its organic use, and it is also a major thread running through each part of the writing. One incident has only one central idea, and each paragraph, each section and each sentence must centre firmly on it, and plot and content which has not much relation to it can be summarised or omitted.

iii The narrative needs to be lively
When narrating an incident, if it is flat and dull it will not make a deep impression on people, and therefore it will not be able to convey your point of view. So the narration of an event must be lively and vivid .

How can narrative be made lively and vivid then? Firstly, you need to choose events that have a lively quality. Lively events are those which have clear-cut features, and for those features to stand out, they must be new and original and full of the flavour of life. These types of incidents are not, in fact, difficult to find. If, in everyday life you just take care to observe, you will be able to produce original and deep impressions of things, and to discover fresh incidents and new angles for recounting incidents. Secondly, the narration of events needs to be specific. Detail is the foundation of liveliness. Summarised narrative is sometimes necessary, but if the writing of an event is a dry-as-dust summary account from start to finish, then it will definitely be generalised and abstract, and unable to produce a lively effect. Only incidents which are narrated concretely can be substantial and colourful. To narrate concretely does not mean indiscriminate application of ink, but rather is narration with the specifics and summary done according to what is primary and what is secondary. Only when it is written so that the use of detail and summary are apt, can those lively, vivid details be made to stand out more effectively. Thirdly, you need to take care when depicting character. Characters are the subjects which construct the event, therefore, whether or not the event is written in a lively way is decided to a large extent by whether the depiction of the person dealing with the event is lively and vivid or not. Characters appear and leave the scene along with the development of the event, and it is only through conducting a vivid and specific depiction of the language and behaviour of the characters on the scene, that the whole event can be vivid and specific. Fourthly, the language must be lively. Accounts of events primarily use narrative language, but they sometimes also use descriptive and lyrical language and the language of commentary. When several types of language are used together, particular care needs to be taken to dovetail them together naturally, and to make the style consistent. At the same time, you need as far as possible to choose language which is fresh, lucid and lively, and rich in expressive power. In this you not only need to take care with the accuracy and images of the words and expressions, but also to take care with the changes in sentence patterns, making the language rise and fall, and authentically reflecting the event's own developmental change. You also need to make appropriate use of rhetorical devices, such as metaphors and similes, to strengthen the vividness of the language.

3 Types of narratives about events
There are unitary incidents in life, and complex ones. Narratives about events are also by and large divided into two categories: single event narratives and complex event narratives.

i Single event narratives
Single event narratives give an account of an event with not many threads, not many characters, a short time duration, and a locale with not much variation, that is to say, a relatively simple event. For the very reason that the event is simple, and that through it you have to fully express a certain point of view or idea, when choosing the event you should be particularly careful about the value and significance of the material. After you have decided on your material, then you must apply most of your ink to those parts which are most able to reveal the central idea, and carry out a detailed and specific depiction. Only in this way will the writing be substantial, and the centre stand out.

ii Complex event narratives
Complex event narratives give an account of an event with a relatively complex plot, quite a lot of characters, and with quite a long duration or quite large spatial changes. This type of event is very often made up of several small incidents, revealing a common central idea.

When writing a complex event narrative you need to note the following. Firstly, grasp hold of the threads, command the whole piece. When several incidents are going to reveal a central idea, then you must use one thread to link them together organically. This thread can be an event, it can be an object, and it can also be an action or an image. Secondly, integrate the 'point' and 'surface', use of detail and summary must be apt. From the point of view of content, complex event narratives generally have two states of affairs. One gives an account of several things occurring at the same time. The other gives an account of several things happening successively over a relatively long period of time. Because the incidents are comparatively speaking quite complex, and because you want to narrate them clearly, then you must achieve point-surface integration. "Surface" is the full view of the event, and "point" refers to the several specific events which construct the event. When writing the full-view it needs to be condensed, and when writing the specific events they need to be detailed, achieving aptness in use of detail and summary. Thirdly, make proper transitions. Because you are joining several things together, you need to be particularly careful about the transition when one thing is moving onto the next. Transitions have the function of forming a connecting link between what goes before and what comes after, and come in many forms. Some use meaning and logic links, some use paragraph or phase structural features, some use sentences summing up what has gone before and leading into what follows, some use connecting words, and so on. Which form in particular should be employed must be determined by the development of the event. When a transition is required it must be made. Otherwise, it will lack unity and coherence. When the transition is made, it must be done well. It needs to be natural, straightforward, and skillful; if not, it will seem incoherent.

Translated from Zhu Bing Yao ed., Composition Guide for Foreign Students of Chinese, Sinolingua, Beijing, 1997
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lesleyJune 28, 2008 at 3:09 AM
Chapter 8 Expository Writing

Overview

1 What is an exposition?
An exposition is a piece of writing which comments on things and analyses reasoning. For the most part they can be divided into two types: expositions on things, and expositions on logic. Expositions on things stress the formal, qualitative, structural and functional characteristics of things. Expositions on logic primarily analyse the causality of things, and explain the laws of development of things.

2 The difference between expositions and narratives
In order to write narratives of events and people vividly, in line with the requirements of the central idea, narratives very often employ many kinds of techniques, and use vivid language to carry out a detailed depiction of their object, to give people the feeling that they have visited the scene or seen the person. However, expositions primarily use expository methods to comment clearly on a thing's appearance, qualities, causal factors, relationships and functions, and to show a person's experience and characteristics clearly. They use succinct, plain language to introduce, explain, and expound simply on the object of the exposition, giving people a clear impression. When writing about a place: if you are going to write a narrative, then you have to infuse it with the writer's distinctive emotional colouring, and very often you have to depict distinctive scenery, introduce interesting local conditions and customs and changes over time, and convey feeling. If you are going to write an exposition, then you must lay stress on introducing the geographical location, the natural environment, the scenic spots and historical sites, and the major produce and manufactures, and you can also briefly introduce the local conditions and customs and changes over time. When writing about a person: if you are going to write a narrative, you need to undertake a depiction of the person's appearance, language, actions, and mentality to show the person's ideology and disposition. You need to undertake a depiction of scenes and occasions relevant to the person's activities, and use them to explain the background and to heighten the atmosphere. If you are going to write an exposition, you need to use narrative (or recount) methods to introduce the person's experience, life and distinguishing features. An exposition, unlike a narrative, does not succeed by virtue of its vivid descriptions. Its liveliness and ideological content is expressed in its succinct and accurate comment. Sometimes in the process of the exposition, enlivening techniques such as description and metaphor are used. The aim however is to explain the thing's traits accurately and clearly, and moreover this type of descriptive technique is not the major method of the essay.

3 The types of exposition

1) Introductory exposition
Introductory expositions are primarily expositions which introduce static-state things, such as introductions of historical, geographical or domestic knowledge, and expositions on things such as buildings, equipment, foods and so on. The requirement of the writing is to highlight the characteristics of the thing. If the object of the exposition is an entity , the characteristics of the whole must be introduced first, then each component part and how it interrelates with it should be introduced one by one. If the object of the exposition is not an entity or is several entities, you should first briefly introduce their common characteristics, then explain in detail, citing representative examples. It generally uses simple formulations, such as quantification, exemplification, classification, comparison, definition, diagrams, and estimation . The language is also simple and unadorned. Sometimes some descriptive and metaphorical techniques and language are used, but it needs to be in the right amount, and cannot damage the overall characteristic of simplicity.

2) Narrative exposition
The object of exposition in a narrative exposition is mainly a dynamic-state thing, and the aim rests on revealing the process of change in the thing and the rules governing it, for example, explaining a working procedure, a manufacturing process, a person's experience and so on. It uses narrative and expository techniques in combination to accurately explain the thing's development, and the characteristics of each stage of the development process. What needs to be made clear is that the narrative serves the exposition; the narrative needs to be precise, and needs to be clearly scientific. Points to be noted are: you cannot share the writing out equally between the individual stages in the development of the thing; the selection and rejection of material and the detail and summary in the narrative must be decided according to the requirements. You should also use explicit language to signal stages or times.

3) Interpretive exposition
Interpretive expositions primarily comment on a certain type of reasoning or introduce a certain type of scientific principle. The special feature of this type of exposition is its scientific strictness. When writing you need to note: firstly, that the internal rules and linkages in the elaboration of the reasoning or the explanation of the scientific principles need to be objective and precise. In order to explain precisely a certain intrinsic attribute and scope, very often undefined means are used. For some concepts which are difficult to sum up scientifically, explanatory methods can be used to point out their nature, state, characteristics, causal factors and so on, and from one aspect reveal part of the concept. Secondly, the train of thought must be clear, and the arrangement of ideas must be evident. The train of thought must be determined according to the detailed circumstances of the object of the explanation. Some can be traced back from outcome to cause, that is from the phenomenon penetrating to the essence. Some can start out from the intrinsic linkages between the reasoning, moving from the whole to the parts, the large to the small or the one to the other. Some can first explain the overall meaning, and then differentiate into levels or classes for comment. Thirdly, the language must be plain and strict. Generally, expository methods such as definitions, quantification, explanation, comparison, citation, classification, and elaboration are used. The language must be complementary to this. Make every effort to avoid using descriptive and metaphorical approaches, and avoid using descriptive language which carries with it subjective emotional colouring.

4) Literary exposition
Literary expositions primarily introduce scientific knowledge. They draw support from literary techniques to comment on profound and abstract scientific knowledge or complex things, making them become vivid and detailed, simple and easy to understand. They generally use two methods: the first is to use literary techniques such as metaphors, analogies and description in the middle of a standard exposition to make the explanation seem vivid and detailed. The second is according to the characteristics of the object of the explanation, to use literary techniques such as personification, dialogue, fairy tale throughout the whole piece of writing to personify the object of the explanation. Through imagery, the principle is conveyed explaining the profound in simple terms, and with life and interest. When using this type of method, you definitely must grasp the essential characteristics of the object of the exposition. Language use not only must be concerned about artistry, and make every effort to avoid scientific terminology, but must also be concerned about commenting accurately on the relevant knowledge or principles.

4 Several expository methods
When writing an exposition, you must determine the expository method according to the circumstances of the object of the exposition and the aim of the writing. At the same time, you also need to take note of the supporting uses of the various types of methods.

1) Definition exposition
Generally known as "giving a definition". What it means is using simple, clear language to outline the essential features of the thing being commented on. When you are giving a definition you have to grasp the essential features of the thing, and abandon the inessential attributes. Only in this way can you differentiate out this thing from similar types of things. For example, when you are giving a definition of the concept of "man", you cannot give an exposition simply from the aspects of has a body, has eyes, a nose, and ears, can eat things, and can walk, because there are many types of animal like this. Only when you include such attributes in the definition as can make tools, can use tools, can work, can use language and think, and can speak, can you explain the essential characteristics of mankind.

2) Exemplification exposition
This is a method which uses specific examples to explain a thing. The listing of examples is in order to explain normal circumstances and quite abstract things; it particularises the content of the exposition. Examples may be things in outline, or they may be detailed examples, however, they must all have representativeness. The use of representative cases is most able to reveal the essential characteristics of things.

3) Comparative exposition
By expounding the nature of a thing through comparison, the features of the thing can be revealed and the essence grasped. In broad terms the comparative method is: comparing familiar and unfamiliar things of the same type, and using the known to explain the unknown; making a comparison with things of a different type which have certain points of similarity, to make the features of the thing being commented on clearer and more specific; making a comparison of the before and after state of the same thing, to explain its development; and you can also make a comparison with a set of contrasting things, to highlight the differences.

4) Classification exposition
First divide the thing you are going to comment on into different categories according to particular criteria, then comment on them one by one. You can carry out the classification according to differences in the object of the commentary's form, nature, causal factors, function, relationships and so on. The criteria of the classification should be consistent, and the contents of the various classes should be in juxtaposition; they cannot contain each other or overlap. When doing a commentary by classification, you generally first briefly introduce the thing being commented on and the criteria for classification, the aims and the point of it, then explain in detail the content and features of each group, and finally return to the entirety of the thing being commented on and briefly sum up, making it well-organised.

5) Division by items exposition
In order to give a complete and penetrating commentary on the thing, you can divide up the thing or logic being commented on by level or item, undertake an analysis of from the various aspects, and do a detailed exposition. For example in a commentary on a type of animal, you can comment on it from the different aspects of its external appearance, its life habits and characteristics, its reproduction, and its relationship to mankind; in this way the arrangement of ideas seems clear and the method plainly evident.

6) Commentary (or annotative) exposition
The commentary exposition is the conducting of commentary and interpretation into the nature, laws and features of a thing. There are differences to a definition exposition: a definition exposition uses very succinct language to reflect the essential attributes of a thing, whereas commentary exposition may be a brief interpretation or it may be a proper unfolding explanation. The content does not have to outline the essential attributes of a thing; according to the requirements it can highlight the special qualities of a certain aspect. The language is also quite flexible, and suitable metaphors and analogies can be used.

7) Figurative exposition
The figurative exposition method is one which uses figurative writing and descriptive techniques to comment on the thing in figurative detail, simple and easy to understand. For example using personification to explain things, using metaphor to explain the characteristics of things, using descriptive techniques to comment on the phenomenon and state of things.

5 The requirements of expositions

1) Accurate knowledge and objective approach
The aim of an exposition lies in clear commentary on things and reasoning to teach people knowledge. Therefore, the first thing to take note of is the validity of the knowledge itself. The knowledge being introduced and the tenets being explained must accord with science. The concepts being used must be accurate, the definitions given must reflect the essential characteristics of things, the classifications must have clear boundaries, and the material and examples cited must be true and reliable. Secondly, you must use an objective approach. When you are commenting on a thing or analysing a tenet, you cannot use subjective feelings and likes and dislikes to pass judgement, neither can you use writing methods of the lyrical, symbolic, allegorical type, and even less can you mix in with the writing sentences showing the writer's own behaviour and mental activities.

2) Seize on the special characteristics and grasp the essence
Whatever type of thing it is, they all have characteristics which distinguish them from other things, for example the structure and orientation of buildings; the functionality and practicality of equipment and articles for use; the uniqueness and brilliance, orientation and sequencing of scenic spots and historical sites; the scientificness and internal logical relations of tenets and so on. Looked at from its large aspects, the special marks which differentiate a certain category from another category are that category's generality. Within the same category, there are very often differences between individuals, demonstrating different characteristics. This is individuality. Though all are buildings, old-style buildings and modern buildings are different, office buildings and residential buildings are different, citizen's houses and palaces are different. Though all alike are palaces, each age and each nationality has its own different architectural style. This point of difference is the "special characteristics". When commenting on a thing, it is necessary to seize on the special characteristics and have a firm grip on the essence and laws, before you can comment on it clearly and accurately.

3) Clear organisation and orderly writing
When explaining objective things and tenets, apart from taking care that the content is scientific and accurate, you must also pay attention to the structural organisation of the article, that is to say it must follow a certain sequence, and it must be arranged coherently. In normal circumstances, static-state substantial things are often commented on according to a spatial sequence: when introducing articles for use and items, it can be according to their structure and location; for places and buildings, it can be from the exterior to the interior, or from the interior to the exterior, or it can take one point as the centre and divide it up north, south, east, west, or front, rear, left, right to do the introduction; when writing about landscapes and scenic spots, you can write according to the tracks of the tour, or you can ascend a height to enjoy a distant view and use a bird's-eye view to introduce it. Writing about a dynamic-state thing, for example introducing the development process of a thing, or a person's life, most often takes time as the thread: things according to the sequence of manufacture or development; people according to the division of their life and experience; events divided into stages according to causes, beginnings, process and result, or current situation, development, and prospects. When explaining complex things, you can divide the content of the explanation into several aspects, then according to prescribed sequences write about them in separate sections. When interpreting abstract principles or reasoning, you can organise it according to the laws that people know about: first start talking about it from particular examples that people are familiar with, then track down the origin, and clarify the principles and causal factors. You can also write according to the thing's own logical sequence, that is first expound the concepts, then successively explain the causal factors, nature, appearance, categories, functions and effects as well as its relationship with other things; this is the sequence of the general to the particular, or cause to effect.

Both talking about things and tenets need to be done according to a definite sequence, however, that is certainly not to say that one type of thing or tenet can only have one type of sequence applied to it. Sometimes according to the requirements, you can use two or more explanatory sequences, and the same thing can have different explanatory sequences applied according to the different writing objectives and materials. For example, if you are writing about a school, and if the focus is an introduction of the environment and school buildings, then you need to use a spatial sequence; if the focus is on introducing development and change, then you need to take time as the sequence; if the focus is on introducing the education and the teachers, then you need to use a logical sequence.

4) Language accurate and easy to understand, clear and simple.
Expository essays do not strive to be varied and colourful, vivid and moving like narratives. Neither are they strongly partial like discussions. They require an objective, static-state statement to be made on the thing or tenet. It cannot be exaggerated or diminished, and word-usage must be exact and unambiguous. When dealing with some profound principles or abstract concepts, you need to strive to use common easily-understood language along with the commentary, to make it become lively and specific. Explanatory language also needs to be succinct. Don't use two words where one will do, and don’t use two sentences where one will do. Even more should the use of decorative and descriptive words to show emotional colouring be avoided. Use the least amount of speech possible so the thing or tenet is commented on clearly, cleanly and neatly, and clear at a glance. Generally speaking, expository language is clear and simple. Sometimes it requires the techniques of description, metaphor, and analogy, however, the aim is to increase the effectiveness of the exposition.

Translated from Zhu Bing Yao ed., Composition Guide for Foreign Students of Chinese, Sinolingua, Beijing, 1997
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lesleyJune 28, 2008 at 3:11 AM
Chapter 10 Discussions

A discussion is a type of writing which has discussion or argument primary. It usually uses the form of raising an issue, analysing the issue and resolving the issue to clarify and expound one's own views.
Discussions need to have three key elements, namely an argument, grounds for the argument, and proof of the argument.

1 The argument
The argument is simply the writer's view and position on the issue under discussion. It is the heart of the discussion.
The argument must be sound and clear-cut. Soundness simply indicates the necessity to accord with the objective laws of things, to be geared to actual circumstances, and to be able to stand the test of time and practice. And clear-cut simply means that the argument should be very clear and explicit. What is affirmed and what is refuted, what is supported and what is opposed must be clear as day. It cannot be vague, and it cannot be ambiguous.
A discussion must have a basic argument, and this basic argument is called the "central argument". However, sometimes because the article is quite complex or in order to discuss things in a thorough and orderly way, the article can be divided into several parts, the discussion can be undertaken from several aspects, and in this way, several branch arguments are produced revolving around the central argument. These branch arguments are used to bear out and elaborate on the central argument, in order to serve the central argument.
The advancing of an argument does not have a unified set pattern; at exactly which time it is most appropriate to advance it is very often determined according to the requirements of the discussion of the particular issue. Therefore, the location of the central argument in the article is not fixed. There are generally four ways to raise the argument: the first is that the essay title is actually the central argument, and provided that you look at the heading, it will be clear at a glance what the issue the essay is going to prove is. The second is to raise the argument at the beginning of the writing, so that the reader can understand the basic standpoint from the beginning, and can easily grasp the heart of the essay. The third is to raise the argument in the middle of the article. Through the preceding analysis, the drawing out of the central argument by induction, then the opening out of the discussion, and the further proving of one's thesis, you will be able to achieve the effect of giving greater prominence to the central argument. The fourth is to raise the argument at the end of the article. Taking the full text of discussion as the premise, and at the end explicitly pointing out one's own viewpoint, can give a person a feeling of 'where water flows, a channel is formed', in that it is natural and convincing.

2 Grounds of the argument
The grounds of the argument is the material which is used to prove the argument; it is the reason and basis of the argument.
Commonly used grounds for argument fall into two categories, factual grounds and theoretical grounds.
Factual grounds: Sound views are all the reflection of objective things, are summed up out of practice, and using the method of presenting facts to state the argument is very convincing. Factual grounds include current material, historical facts and experience, as well as various kinds of statistics and so on.
Theoretical grounds: Theoretical grounds are simply sound theory and scientific principles. They include truths borne out through practice, generally acknowledged scientific truths, definitions and laws, as well as generally accepted sayings and aphorisms and so on.
When choosing grounds for argument you need to note the following points:
1 It must be authentic. The facts chosen may be general or they may be particular, you can use one or several, but they must be irrefutable. The speeches and literary quotations cited must be referenced, and the facts and data must be accurate.
2 It must be typical. There may be a lot of current and historical material for elucidating a certain argument, however you cannot pile it up willy-nilly. You must choose and use typical material which is most able to elucidate the issue. Only typical material can be most highly representative, and because of this it is also the most convincing.
3 It must be new and original. When people hear platitudes they will be sick of them, but newness and originality will make people see things in a fresh light, and can vividly and powerfully elucidate argument.
4 It has to be related to the argument. The standpoint and the material should be integrated; when you are choosing and applying the grounds, it is necessary to be careful about the internal relations between it and the argument. If the grounds and the argument do not fit in with each other then you cannot elucidate the argument, and the grounds will not bear out the argument amply or sufficiently.

3 Proof of the argument
The proof is the process and method of using the grounds to elucidate the argument. The argument resolves the question of "what is to be proved", and the grounds resolve the question of "what is to be used as proof". The proof, on the other hand, resolves the question of "how to prove it". Therefore, the proof reflects the logical relationship between the argument and the grounds. It uses the grounds to prove the argument, and integrates the material and the standpoint.
The proof includes two parts, proof and refutation. Proof is illustrating the correctness of your own standpoint from the positive side. Refutation on the other hand, is illustrating the correctness of your own standpoint through the refutation of the erroneous arguments of the other side.
There are two forms of proof, inductive and deductive. Inductive proof is the generalisation and induction of a general truth from a series of particular facts. It goes from the particular to the general; the instances come first and the conclusions come later. Deductive proof is just the opposite. It infers particular facts from general truths, and goes from the general to the particular. The conclusions come first and the instances come later.
In one piece of writing you can just use one form, or you can use the two forms in combination.
Several commonly used methods of proof:
1 Exemplification
This is a method which uses examples as grounds to undertake a proof. The examples can be particular instances, they can be generalised facts, or they can be statistics and so forth. This type of method is used the most widely and is very effective. What needs to be noted is: it cannot be understood in a simple way as the adding of examples to a standpoint; it is necessary to bring to light the internal relations between the argument and the grounds, and to use reasoning to make the inferences.
2 Citation
This is a method which uses reasoning or scientific truth as the grounds to prove the argument. It can cite the words of eminent people, scientific truths, definitions, life common sense and so on, because truth properly reflects the laws of development of objective things, and after undergoing testing in practice, it has universal significance.
3 Metaphor
This is a method which draws support from simile and metaphor to undertake a proof. This method can take abstract, profound principles and comment on them concretely and plainly. It is not only easy to understand, but also lively and vivid. Using things which are concrete, plain and which everyone is familiar with, as parallels can achieve quite good results in terms of demonstration and proof. 4 Contrast
This is a method which undertakes proof through comparing and contrasting two things to find out the similarities and differences. Contrast can be the comparison of two things of a different character, and it can also be the comparison of two things of the same character. The characteristics and essential nature of things manifests itself most easily in [the process of] contrast. Who is right and who is wrong, is extremely clear-cut, and it enables sound argument to demonstrate its soundness even more effectively.
5 Analogy
This is a method of proof which draws conclusions from the similarities in certain characteristics of two things on how they might possibly be similar in other characteristics. Analogy must definitely be a comparision of things within the same class, and if they are things of different categories, there must be similarities between the two of them. The more similarities there are, the more natural and believable are the principles inferred.
6 Analysis
This is a method which undertakes proof through analysing an issue, going into it deeply layer by layer, reasonably and sensibly. This method can make the article's reasoning penetrating, and quite strong in logic.
7 Refutation
This is a method of proof which expounds one's own reasoning through negating the other side's standpoint and views. It can be a direct refutation of the opposition's argument, or it can demolish the opposition's argument starting from a refutation of their grounds, thereby forming sound conclusions. This method is forthright and powerful; it can hit the opposition's vital point.
There are many methods of proof. When you are writing a composition you can choose a suitable method according to the actual situation. What you need to be careful about is that a discussion very often does not only use a single method of proof, but rather makes use of several methods in combination.
The language of discussion needs to be accurate and clear-cut. Discussion is different from narrative and exposition. It requires the application of generalised language to conduct a theoretical and analysis and discussion of an issue, and therefore the words used must be accurate, clear-cut and easy to understand. Sentences must be expressed appropriately, and between sentences it must embody logical relationships.

Translated from Zhu Bing Yao ed., Composition Guide for Foreign Students of Chinese, Sinolingua, Beijing, 1997
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lesleyJune 29, 2008 at 4:44 PM
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lesleyJune 29, 2008 at 4:46 PM
Heilongjiang Province (Hei)

Overview Heilongjiang is situated in the border area of the North-East, and is China's northernmost province. The east and north border on the Soviet Union, and the west and south share boundaries with the two provinces and regions of Inner Mongolia and Jilin. It was set up as Heilongjiang province in the Qing, and got its name from the great river on the border, the Heilongjiang. The province is 460,000 plus square kilometres in area, and has a population of 32.04 million (1980). There are Han, Manchu, Korean, Mongolian, Hui, Daur, Oroqen, Hezhen, Kirghiz and Ewenki nationalities. The province comes under the jurisdiction of 12 cities, 65 counties, and 1 autonomous county. There are administrative offices in 7 districts. The provincial capital is Harbin.

Relief The province's mountain areas and plains criss-cross. The terrain by and large is high in the northwest and somewhat lower in the southeast. The southwest and northeast are low and flat. The provincial boundary's northeast part is the Daxing'anling's northernmost section, the shape of the peaks formed from volcanic magma is perfectly round, they are generally at around 1000 metres above sea level, and there are ice-eroded valleys. Within the valleys there are many marshes, and under the ground there is a layer of permafrost. From there as you go to the southeast and reach the banks of the Songhuajiang, it becomes the Yilehuli Mountains and Xiaoxing'anling, at 600 to 1000 metres above sea level. The northeast slopes which face the Heilongjiang are quite high and precipitous. The valleys in the mountains are broad and flat, and there are marshes and wetlands. They are known locally as "dianzi ". Part of the Xiaoxing'anling region has had intermittent volcanic eruptions. Huoshaoshan and Laoheishan in Dedu County's volcano cluster erupted in 1720, and the lava flows blocked the river course, forming lakes. Now people call this place "the natural volcanic museum", and every year a continuous stream of people come for sightseeing and convalescence. In the mountain area the forests are dense, and the state has set up the Fenglin Nature Reserve in the eastern part of it.
The mountain areas in the southeast of the province are part of the eastern mountain area of the North-East . They are high in the south and low in the north, and are generally at around 500 metres above sea level. It takes in Zhangguangcailing, Laoyeling, and Wandashan. The southern part of the mountain area is covered by a large area of accumulated basalt. After being cut into by running water, it has formed flat-topped square mountains, known locally as "pinggang ". Within Shanlan Commune at Ning'anxian, deep within Zhangguangcailing, there is the strange phenomenon of "the underground forest".
The southwest and northeast of the province are respectively the northern part of the Songnen Plain, and the Sanjiang Plain; the area between them connects via the Songhuajiang river valley, and it is the northern part of the North-East Plain. The Songnen Plain takes on an undulating form, is generally at between 150 to 200 metres above sea level, and wetlands are found forming strips along the rivers. The west of the plain has accumulated piles of windblown sand, and between the dunes, the accumulated water forms small lakes and reed ponds. In the northeast of the plain, the terraces formed by the earth's crust rising are known locally as "gang ". The Sanjiang Plain is also known as the Sanjiang Lowlands. It is an alluvial plain where the earth's crust has gradually subsided, and is generally at no more than 50 metres above sea level. It has been formed alluvially jointly by the Heilongjiang, Songhuajiang, and Wusulijiang. Because the soils are sticky and heavy, drainage is impeded, and there is a large area of marshes and wetlands on the plain. The plain soils of the province are fertile; it is a major agricultural region, and there is also quite a quantity of undeveloped land suitable for agriculture.

Climate The province is classed as having a cold temperate-temperate, humid-semihumid monsoon climate. Winters are very long and cold, summers are very brief, and at the north-west end there is no summer. The average annual temperature is -6º to 4ºC, in January -32 to -17ºC and in July 16 to 23ºC, with the lowest temperatures in the north-west. The lowest recorded temperature for the province is -52.3ºC (13 February 1969 at Mohe), and the highest recorded temperature is 39.9ºC (22 July 1968 at Qiqihaer). Frost-free days for the whole province are generally between 90 and 100 days. The average annual rainfall is between 250 and 700 millimetres, with the highest rainfall on the windward slopes of Zhangguangcailing in the Xiaoxing'anling Range. 60% of the annual rainfall is concentrated between June and August. On 15 July 1957, at Keshan, 177.9 mm of rain fell, the greatest amount of rain in one day for the province. Spring drought, summer waterlogging, and autumn frosts are the major natural calamities.

Lakes and rivers The great majority of the province's rivers belong to the Heilongjiang river system. The Nen, the Heilong and the Wusuli flow through the west, north and east of the province respectively. The centre of the province is mainly the Songhua river valley, while the south-east corner is the Suifen river valley. After the north and south sources of the Heilongjiang converge, it flows through the northern border region. It is a major border river in North China. After it takes in the Wusuli, it enters the territory of the Soviet Union. The Songhua is the Heilongjiang's largest tributary within China's borders. It flows through the vast region of advanced economy and dense population in the centre of the province, and is the province's most economically valuable river. The Songhua's largest tributary, the Nenjiang, has its source in Inner Mongolia, and is rich in shipping and irrigation benefits. The Mudan River, which arises within Jilin Province and flows through the south-east of the province, is also a major tributary of the Songhua. The province's largest lake is Xingkai Lake, located on the border between China and the Soviet Union in the south-east. It is 4380 square kilometres in area. Jingpo Lake on the Mudan River is a barrier lake created by volcanic lava blocking the river course. The lake water flows over the lava 'dam' and empties into the lower reaches river course, forming the 20-metre drop Diaoshuilou Waterfall. The lake area is a well-known scenic area in the province. On the lake shore are the ruins of the famous Tang Dynasty Bohai State Capital "Shangjinglongquanfu'. In Deduxian in the Xiaoxing'an mountain region, there is also a barrier lake formed by volcanic activity, Wudalianchi. Apart from these, on the Song-Nen Plain, there are also many small lakes, locally known as "paozi".

Agriculture The ancient forests of the province are dense, the luxuriant vegetation grows thickly, and from time immemorial, hunting and fishing and moving about in search of pasture have been primary. It was only after the Qing Dynasty that changes started to occur. By the time of Liberation, it was only in the vicinity of transportation lines that some agricultural land had been developed. The vast Nenjiang river valley, Heilongjiang valley and the Sanjiang Plain still retained their primeval aspect, and were known as 'Beidahuang '. After Liberation, in order to develop cereals production, a large contingent of specialist soldiers, workers, peasants and school graduates responded to the government's call, and came here one after another, and alongside the local people, drained swamps, developed the Hejiang, Mishan and Heihe reclamation areas, established many state farms, and expanded the area under cultivation. At the same time, on the Song-Nen Plain, agricultural shelter forests were planted, the Songhua River embankments were strengthened and/or built, efforts were made to guard against wind-blown sand and flooding and waterlogging calamities. Large and small irrigated areas were also developed in a thousand-odd locations. Along with the increase in cultivated land and mechanised agriculture, and the increase in the amount of water conservancy, the province's agricultural production developed rapidly, and it provided a large quantity of commodity grain to the state. The "Beidahuang" (Great North Wilderness) had become the "Beidacang" (Great North Granary).
The province now has over one hundred million mu of cultivated land, and has achieved a one crop per year farming system. The area sown in cereal crops is more than 70% of the cultivated area, and if soyabeans are added on, it is around 95%. The main cereal crops are food grains other than wheat and rice , with maize, millet and gaoliang quite common. Heilongjiang is a major wheat-producing region for the country, wheat mainly being found in the north. The history of paddy-rice growing in the province is quite short. After Liberation, the area of paddy fields increased quite rapidly, and they are quite common in the province. In the vicinity of Mohe, China's northernmost area, there is also paddy-rice cultivation. Heilongjiang's soyabeans hold an important position in the whole country, and are mainly found in the plain regions south of the 50º parallel, with large quantities being sent out each year. The main cash crops are sugarbeet, linseed and sunflowers, and the output is often number one in the whole country. The Daxing'anling and Xiaoxing'anling forests are dense. It is the most important forestry base in China, and its timber reserves and timber cut are both first in the whole country. Korean pine and larches are the major tree types, and it is China's most important timber supply base. Yichun is a forestry city famous in the whole country. In the remote, heavily-forested mountains, there are many wild plants and animals. Valuable fur-bearing animals such as squirrel, xiangshu , marten, otter, as well as the valuable medicinal materials, ginseng, deer velvet , tiger bone, musk, and the special products of mountain forests, wood-ear fungus, mushrooms, pine nuts. The province's grazing pastures are quite extensive. The plain at the lower reaches of the Nenjiang is a major pastoral area. Livestock raising in the other areas is mainly rural sidelines. Horses and cattle are the major domestic animals, and sheep are mainly found in the plain areas. Most of the various rivers and lakes produce fish, with the Songhua the most important. Its fish production is approximately half that of the whole province. Salmon, sturgeon, and huso sturgeon are the famous special produce of the Heilong and Wusuli rivers. The river flood-lands, and lakes and marshes also have an abundance of reeds.

Industry The most important minerals in the province are coal, oil and gold. The Song-Nen Plain is quite rich in oil, with the Daqing Oilfield being very famous. Coal is distributed extensively, with the Jixi, Hegang, and Shuangyashan coal mines well-known. Along the banks of the Heilong River, gold mines are quite widespread, and Heihe and Huma have long been renowned for gold production. In the vicinity of Qiqiha'er there is natural soda production. The province was developed relatively late. It was only after 1950 and 1951 when a dozen or more factories moved there that it could be said to have modern industry. In the First Five-Year Plan, it was a key construction region, and it was only after that that industry achieved quite rapid development. Now it is one of China's major industrial bases, and is of national significance in the engineering, oil, coal and timber sectors. The papermaking, sugarbeet, sugar refining, linseed , textiles and rubber industries have also developed quite rapidly. The major industrial centres are Harbin, Qiqiha'er, Jiamusi, Mudanjiang, Yichun and Daqing.

Communications The construction of railroads in the province began at the end of the nineteenth century, and up until Liberation they were primarily laid for the predations of the imperialists. After the post-Liberation reorganisation and development, rail transportation became the backbone of the province's communications network, the major lines being the Jing-Ha, Bin-Zhou, Bin-Sui, Ha-Jia, Mu-Jia, Mu-Tu, Ping-Qi, Qi-Bei, Sui-Bei, Fu-Nen, Nen-Lin, Jia-Fu, and Fu-Qian lines . Harbin is the central rail hub for the province. There was quite a large amount of development of the highways after Liberation. Apart from the central south's dense roading network, one can also travel long-distance to the border towns and cities of Mohe, Heihe and Raohe. Heilongjiang the province-level region of North China with the most advanced water transportation. The Songhua River is the most important inland waterway, and the Heilongjiang, Hulan River, Nenjiang and Wusuli are also for the large part navigable by steamers and wooden vessels. However, their icebound period is quite long, and can be six months for the Heilongjiang. When they are frozen, people, horses and vehicles can travel on the river surfaces, or sleds can be used to carry passengers and transport goods. Air transport has Harbin as its centre, and links to Beijing, Shenyang, and Changchun, as well as Jiamusi and Yilan. The petroleum pipelines are primarily responsible for transporting Daqing's crude oil out of the province.

Major cities Harbin City: Located in the south of the province, on the banks of the Songhua River. It is a city which arose after the railroad was open to traffic in the early twentieth century. Now it is the political, economic and cultural centre for the province, and it is also the hub for rail, air and road communications. Industry developed after Liberation, and it is a major national centre for the machinery manufacturing industry. The linen textiles, beet sugar refining, papermaking and oil pressing industries are all well-known. Within the city, there is the North-East Revolutionary Martyrs' Memorial Hall. Scenic spots include Taiyang Island, and the Children's Railway is renowned throughout the country.
Qiqiha'er City: Located on the plain of the middle reaches of the Nenjiang, at the junction of the Bin-Zhou, Ping-Qi and Qi-Bai lines. The city district includes three parts: Fula'ermu, Qiqiha'er, and Ang'angxi. It is a nationally famous middle-sized machinery and locomotive rolling stock manufacturing industry centre. The machine tools, timber processing, and electric power industries are also advanced. The ourskirts are renowned for the raising of dairy cows.
Mudanjiang City: Located in the middle reaches of the Mudanjiang, at the junction of the Mu-Jia, Mu-Tu and Bin-Sui lines. It is a newly arisen industrial city. There are rubber, agricultural machinery, oil refining, timber processing, textiles and papermaking sectors.
Jiamusi City: Located in the Songhua River lower reaches on the south bank, land and water transportation are both quite good. It is one of China's newly arisen industrial cities, and there are relatively large-scale engineering, papermaking, timber processing, textiles, sugar refining, and electric power industries.
Jixi City: Located in the south-east of the province, in the middle reaches of the Muling River, on the Lin-Mi (Linkou-Mishan) line. The major industry is coal mining, and there are also electric power and mechanical engineering sectors.
Hegang City: Located at the south-east foot of the Xiaoxing'anling mountains, it connects with Jiamusi by rail, and is an industrial city with coalmining as the main sector.
Shuangyashan City: Located in the east of the province, it connects with Jiamusi by rail. The major industry is coal extraction, and there are also forestry milling, and iron and steel sectors.
Daqing City: Located in the southwest of the province, on the Bin-Zhou line. Arising along with the opening up of the Daqing Oilfield, it is China's largest petrochemicals base. It is a new type of city, built according to the principles of "integrating worker and peasant, combining urban and rural, benefiting production, and facilitating living".
Heihe City: Located at the province's northern boundary, on the right bank of the Heilongjiang's middle reaches, it is the seat of the administrative office for the Heihe region. It is a place of strategic importance in China's border defence. There are coalmining, timber, foodstuffs, and farm implement manufacturing industries.

Translated from: Cartographical Publishing House, China Atlas, Cartographical Publishing House, Beijing, 1981
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The Old Quincy School in Boston Chinatown 波士頓唐人街舊昆士學校

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